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MODERN    PLUMBING 
ILLUSTRATED 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/modernplumbingilstar 


Modern  Plumbing 
illustrated 


A    COMPREHENSIVE    AND    THOROUGHLY 

PRACTICAL  WORK   ON   THE    MODERN 

AND    MOST   APPROVED    METHODS 

OF   PLUMBING   CONSTRUCTION 

the    standard   work    for    plumbers,   architects, 

builders,  property  owners,  and  for  boards 

of  health  and   plumbing   examiners 

By   R.    M.    STARBUCK     ' 

AUTHOR    OF    "QUESTIONS    AND    ANSWERS    ON    THE    PRACTICE    AND    THEORY    OF 
SANITARY  PLUMBING,"    "QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS   ON   THE    PRACTICE   AND 
THEORY   OF   STEAM   AND   HOT   WATER    HEATING,"    "HOT  WATER   CIRCU- 
LATION    ILLUSTRATED,"     "EXAMINATION    CHARTS    FOR    BOARDS    OF 
HEALTH."    "EXAMINATION    CHARTS   FOR    PLUMBERS*    UNIONS," 
"THE    STARBUCK    PLUMBER'S    ESTIMATE    BOOK,"    ETC. 


•^Vy. 


FULLY    ILLUSTRATED    BY    FIFTY-FIVE    DETAILED    PLATES 
MADE    EXPRESSLY   BY  THE   AUTHOR   FOR  THIS   WORK 


NEW   YORK 
MUNN     &     COMPANY 

OFFICE     OF    THE     SCIENTIFIC     AMERICAN,     3  6' I      BROADWAY 

1907 


^ 


Copyright,  1906,  by  R.  M.  Starbuck 


Copyright,  1907,  by  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 


COMPOSITION,  ELECTROTYPING.  PRINTING,  AND 
BINDING  BY  TROW  DIRECTORY,  PRINTING  AND 
BOOKBINDING    COMPANY,     NEW    YORK,    U.     S.    A. 


PREFACE 

There  is  possibly  no  branch  of  construction  work  which  has 
undergone  within  the  same  given  time  such  great  changes  of  a  far- 
reaching  nature  as  plumbing  construction.  These  changes  look  to 
the  betterment  of  sanitary  conditions,  and  are  going  on  continually. 
As  a  consequence  of  all  this,  any  work  relating  to  plumbing  con- 
struction to  be  of  real  value  to  the  reader  must  deal  with  modern 
methods  and  appliances,  for  the  old-time  construction  called  for  such 
entirely  different  methods,  materials,  and  appliances,  that  the  trade 
of  the  younger  plumber  of  to-day  has  little  in  common  with  the  trade 
which  the  older  school  of  plumbers  learned  in  their  younger  days. 

The  practice  of  filling  books  on  plumbing  with  instructions  and 
historical  data  concerning  old-time  plumbing  construction  has  no 
features  to  recommend  it,  and  the  author,  believing  in  the  truth  of 
this  statement,  has  avoided  the  employment  of  all  such  material.  The 
ambitious  plumber  of  to-day,  if  he  is  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times  in 
his  chosen  line  of  work,  cannot  afford  to  waste  much  time  in  gaining 
knowledge  of  an  obsolete  nature. 

Many  factors  have  taken  part  in  the  advancement  of  sanitary 
construction. 

The  good  features  that  have  arisen  in  plumbing  construction  are 
not  to  be  credited  to  any  one  influence,  but  to  many  and  varied  influ- 
ences. In  the  first  place,  the  people  of  this  country  have  been  edu- 
cated to  demand  and  to  expect  the  best  possible  living  conditions, 
and  the  result  is  that  the  standard  is  constantly  being  raised.  The 
public  years  ago  began  to  demand  more  efficient  regulation  of  plumb- 
ing construction  in  towns  and  cities,  and  the  results  arising  from  this 
demand  and  its  fulfillment  have  been  of  the  best.  Municipal  plumbing 
ordinances  are  constantly  being  revised  or  added  to  in  the  effort  to 
provide  the  public  with  the  most  perfect  sanitary  conditions  that  are 
to  be  obtained.  Competition  is  another  factor  which  has  brought 
results. 

Manufacturers  everywhere  have  striven  to  improve  their  goods, 

and  the  advancement  which  they  have  made  in  all  lines  in  recent  years 

7 


8  .  PREFACE 

is  truly  wonderful.  The  plumber  whose  duty  it  is  to  execute  work 
of  construction  has  been  most  influential  in  bringing  about  changed 
conditions.  It  is  he  who  is  better  able  than  others  to  observe  the 
good  points  of  different  methods  and  devices,  and  their  deficiencies, 
and  to  him  is  due  the  credit  of  very  many  of  the  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  the  plumbing  system  which  the  public  now  enjoys. 

So  far  as  it  is  within  his  power  the  author  has  endeavored  to 
acquaint  his  readers  with  the  improvements  that  have  been  effected 
in  the  many  different  directions. 

The  work  is  designed  to  cover  the  entire  field  of  plumbing  as 
far  as  possible.  It  takes  up  not  only  plumbing  as  practiced  in  towns 
and  cities  under  strict  plumbing  regulations,  but  plumbing  construc- 
tion under  conditions  obtaining  in  country  districts,  where  the  prob- 
lems which  arise  are  often  of  an  entirely  different  nature,  and  where 
there  is  not  in  existence  any  public  regulation  of  sanitary  work. 

The  subjects  considered  cover  a  variety  of  lines  of  work,  includ- 
ing fixture  work  in  detail,  the  construction  of  the  drainage  and  vent 
systems  in  detail,  and  complete  plumbing  systems  of  buildings  of 
various  kinds. 

The  work  is  designed  essentially  to  cover  subjects  pertaining  to 
drainage  alone,  but  it  is  clear  that  in  many  instances  the  subject  of 
water  supply  is  closely  associated  with  the  drainage  problem,  and  the 
author  has  therefore  deemed  it  advisable  in  several  instances  to  go 
somewhat  into  the  general  subject  of  water  supply.  This  is  especially 
true  of  country  plumbing  systems  and  of  the  systems  of  large  city 
buildings. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  would  say  that  to  him  the  collection  and 
arrangement  of  the  information  which  "  Modern  Plumbing  Illus- 
trated "  contains  has  been  a  matter  not  only  of  much  labor,  but  of 
much  pleasure  as  well.  It  is  a  subject  which  has  held  his  interest 
for  many  years,  and  the  interest  which  he  has  long  had  in  all  that 
pertains  to  the  betterment  of  plumbing  construction  and  to  the  better- 
ment of  the  plumbing  trade  at  large  will  always  continue. 

It  is  his  sincere  hope  that  the  following  pages  may  hold  infor- 
mation of  interest  and  of  value  to  his  readers,  and  that  they  may 
prove  a  source  of  help  in  time  of  need. 

November,  1906. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Plate  I. — The    Kitchen    Sink  —  Laundry    Tubs  —  Vegetable    Wash 

Sink 15 

Plate  II. — Lavatories — The  Pantry  Sink — Contents  of  Marble  Slabs     21 

Plate  III.— The  Bath  Tub— Foot  Bath— Sitz  Bath— Child's  Bath- 
Shower  Bath — Trimmings  for  Baths  and  Lavatories — Setting 
Marble  Floor  Slabs 29 

Plate  IV. — Water  Closet  Connections — Venting  of  Water  Closets    .     35 

Plate  V. — The   Low-down  Water  Closet — Operation  of  the  Water 

Closet  by  Flush  Valves — Water  Closet  Ranges 41 

Plate  VI. — The  Slop  Sink — The  Urinal — The  Bidet 47 

Plate  VII. — The    Hotel  or  Restaurant  Sink — The    Use  of    Grease 

Traps 53 

Plate  VIII. — Refrigerators — Safe  Wastes — Tank  Overflow — Floor 
Drains  and  Drips  from  Ice  Houses,  etc. — Laundry  Waste  — 
Creamery  Waste 59 

Plate  IX. — Refrigerator  Lines — Bar  Sinks — Soda  Fountain  Sinks — 

Exhausts,  Drips,  and  Blow-offs  of  Steam  Boilers,  etc.      ...     63 

Plate  X. — The  Stall  Sink — The  Horse  Trough — Frost-Proof  Water 

Closets 6j 

Plate  XI. — Connections  for  S-Traps — Venting 71 

Plate  XII. — Connections  for  Drum  Traps — Practical  Requirements 

of  Venting        . 79 

Plate  XIII.— Soil  Pipe  and  Soil  Pipe  Connections      ,       «...     85 

Plate  XIV. — Supporting  and  Running  of  Soil  Pipe 93 

9 


lo  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Plate  XV. — The  House  or  Main  Trap  and  Fresh  Air  Inlet    ...     99 

Plate  XVI.  —  Floor    and    Yard    Drains  —  Subsoil    Drainage  —  The 

Cellar  Drainer 107 

Plate  XVII. — Water  Closets — Water  Closet  Floor  Connections  .       .  113 

Plate  XVIII.— Local  Venting 121 

Plate  XIX. — Bath  Rooms 129 

Plate  XX. — Bath  Rooms    .       . 135 

Plate  XXL— Bath  Rooms  . 141 

Plate  XXII. — Bath  Rooms       .       . .       .147 

Plate  XXIII. — Poor  Practices  in  Plumbing  Construction       .       .       .   153 

Plate  XXIV.— "  Roughing-in  " — Use  of  Cleanouts      .....   159 

Plate  XXV.— Testing  of  the  Plumbing  System— The  Water  Test— 

The  Air  Test — The  Smoke  Test — The  Peppermint  Test       .       .   165 

Plate  XXVI.— Continuous  Venting •  1/3 

Plate  XXVII. — Continuous  Venting  for  Two-Floor  Work     .       .       .  177 

Plate  XXVIII. — Continuous  Venting  for  Two  Lines  of  Fixtures  on 

Three  or  More  Floors — Practical  Requirements  of  Venting       .   181 

Plate  XXIX. — -Continuous  Venting  of  Water  Closets — Circuit  Vents 

— Loop  Vents 185 

Plate  XXX. — Plumbing  for  Cottage  House — General  Remarks  .       .189 

Plate  XXXI. — Construction  of  Cellar   Piping — The   House   Drain, 

House  Sewer,  etc 193 

Plate  XXXII. — Plumbing  for  Residences — Use  of  Special  Fittings 

— Brass  Piping 199 

Plate  XXXIII.  —  Plumbing  for  Two-Flat  House  —  Rain  Leaders  — 
Regulation  of  Plumbing  Construction  in  Tenement  Houses, 
Lodging  Houses,  etc 203 

Plate  XXXIV. — Plumbing    for    Apartment    Building — Systems    of 

Hot-Water  Supply — Range  Boilers,  etc 209 


CONTENTS  II 

PAGE 

Plate  XXXV.— Plumbing  for  Double  Apartment  Buildings— Fil- 
tered Water  Supply 215 

Plate  XXXVL— Plumbing  for  Office  Buildings 221 

Plate  XXXVII.— Plumbing   for   Public   Toilet   Rooms— Causes   of 

Siphonage  in  the  Unvented  Plumbing  System 225 

Plate  XXXVIIL— Plumbing  for  Public  Toilet  Rooms     .       .       .       .231 

Plate  XXXIX. — Plumbing  for  Bath  Establishment — Tanks  for  Stor- 
age and  Supply 235 

Plate  XL.  —  Plumbing    for    Engine    House    and    Stables  —  Factory 

Plumbing 239 

Plate  XLI. — Automatic  Flushing  for  Schools,  Factories,  etc.        .       .  243 

Plate  XLII. — The  Use  of  Flushing  Valves 249 

Plate  XLIII. — Urinals  for  Public  Toilet  Rooms 253 

Plate  XLIV. — The  Durham  System — The  Destruction  of  Pipes  by 

Electrolysis 259 

Plate  XLV. — Construction  of  Work  without  Use  of  Lead      .       .      .  269 

Plate  XLVI. — The  Disposal  of  Sewage  of  Fixtures  Located  below 
Sewer  Level  —  Automatic  Sewage  Lifts  —  Automatic  Sump 
Tanks .  275 

Plate  XLVII. — Country  Plumbing — Water  Supply 283 

Plate  XLVIII. — Construction  and  Use  of  Cesspools 291 

Plate  XLIX. — Construction  and  Action  of  the  Septic  Tank — Under- 
ground Disposal  of  Partial]}'  Purified  Sewage  —  Automatic 
Sewage  Siphons 297 

Plate  L. — Pneumatic  Systems  of  Water  Supply — Hydraulic  Rams — 
Pumps — Water  Supply  by  Siphonage — Pumping  by  Windmill 
—  Capacity  of  Tanks  —  Protection  of  Supply  Pipes  against 
Freezing 307 

Plate  LI. — Water  Supply  for  Country  House — Double-Acting  Ram 

— Cistern  Filters — Hot-Water  Supply      . 323 


12  CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Plate  LI  I. — Thawing  Underground  Water  Pipes  by  Electricity         .  329 

Plate  LIII. — Double  Boilers     .       .       . .335 

Plate  LIV. — Hot-Water  Supply  for  Large  Buildings        .       .       .       .341 

Plate  LV. — Automatic  Control  of  Hot-Water  Tanks 347 


Suo-orestions  for  Estimatinsf  Plumbine  Construction 


•&J3 


351 


INTRODUCTION 

Many  of  the  readers  of  "  Modern  Plumbing  Illustrated  "  have 
long  been  acquainted  with  the  same  title  applied  to  another  work  by 
the  same  author,  which  is  now  no  longer  published.  A  few  remarks 
relating  to  the  several  steps  through  which  this  work  has  passed  may 
be  of  interest. 

In  January,  1899,  Mr.  Starbuck  published  a  novel  work  relat- 
ing to  plumbing  construction,  known  as  "  The  Starbuck  Plumbing 
Charts." 

This  work  consisted  of  fifty  blue-print  plates  showing  a  variety 
of  work  relating  to  plumbing  systems  of  various  kinds,  including 
both  detail  work  and  complete  systems.  The  work  filled  a  require- 
ment which  had  never  before  been  met,  and  was  cordially  received 
by  the  plumbing  fraternity  at  large.  After  a  short  time,  however, 
it  was  seen  that  the  "  Plumbing  Charts  "  were  deficient  in  many 
respects,  and  as  a  result  this  work  was  replaced  in  1900  by  a  far 
more  extensive  publication,  known  as  "  Modern  Plumbing  Illus- 
trated." This  work  was  still  in  the  form  of  blue-print  plates,  with- 
out text,  but  double  the  size  of  the  original  plates,  and  meeting 
practical  requirements  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  the  original  work. 
The  work  in  the  form  of  blue  prints  has  had  an  immense  sale  during 
the  past  six  years  among  all  interested  classes,  including  architects, 
master  and  journeyman  plumbers,  boards  of  health  and  plumbing 
examiners,  contractors,  etc.  Meanwhile,  however,  vast  improvements 
have  been  made  in  all  branches  of  plumbing  construction,  with  the 
result  that  much  of  the  work  shown  in  the  1900  publication  has  now 
been  so  far  improved  upon  that  it  has  seemed  best  to  the  author  to 
again  revise  the  work. 

In  the  work  of  revision  it  has  been  found  inadvisable  to  make 
use  of  any  of  the  plates  of  the  1900  publication,  and  accordingly  each 
illustration  of  the  present  publication  has  been  drawn  especially  for 
this  work.  Whereas  the  fifty  full-page  cuts  of  the  1900  work  repre- 
sented some  sevent}^  separate  illustrations,  the  present  form  shows 
more  than  twice  this  number. 

13 


14  INTRODUCTION 

The  greatest  improvement  in  "  Modern  Plumbing  Illustrated," 
however,  is  to  be  found  in  the  addition  of  a  large  amount  of  text, 
and  in  carrying  out  this  part  of  his  work  the  author  has  endeavored 
at  every  point  to  convey  the  information  imparted  in  as  concise  a 
manner  as  possible,  while  at  the  same  time  making  it  entirely  clear 
and  comprehensive. 

As  each  successive  revision  of  the  work  has  been  undertaken,  it 
has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  to  purge  it  of  all  unnecessary  and 
obsolete  matter,  and  to  keep  it  as  far  as  possible  entirely  up  to  date. 


PLATE   I 
THE    KITCHEN    SINK— LAUNDRY    TUBS 


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C<=>nnec/~/<=>ns 
r^       f^r  Kihchen    Sink. 


Plohe  I, 


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J^rodsefs 


J7d>aiiz 


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Je)ro2zs  J^^az^d 


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connections 

for  Loan  dry   Tubs 


THE    KITCHEN    SINK 

The  kitchen  sink  is  made  of  plain,  galvanized  or  enameled  cast 
iron,  slate,  soapstone,  and  porcelain.  The  waste  for  the  kitchen  sink 
is  generally  i^  inch,  though  the  tendency  is  toward  the  use  of  2-inch 
pipe.  As  this  fixture  is  usually  subject  to  greater  use  than  any  other 
plumbing  fixture  of  the  house,  and  as  much  greasy  matter  enters  it, 
even  with  the  utmost  care,  2-inch  pipe  is  often  preferable  to  i^  inch. 

The  vent  for  the  trap  of  the  kitchen  sink  should  be  of  i^^-inch 
pipe.  In  connection  with  this  fixture,  especially  in  large  residences, 
restaurants,  boarding  houses,  or  wherever  a  large  amount  of  dish- 
washing and  cooking  is  done,  a  grease  trap  will  often  serve  the  fix- 
ture much  more  satisfactorily  than  the  ordinary  trap.  An  illustra- 
tion and  description  of  such  a  trap  will  be  found  under  Plate  7. 
Sinks  are  generally  set  about  32  inches  from  the  floor,  this  measure- 
ment being  to  the  top  of  the  sink.  This  height  may  be  varied  an 
inch  either  way,  to  suit  the  desires  of  the  owner.  As  the  kitchen 
sink  is  so  much  in  use,  and  demands  so  much  hot  water,  the  prefer- 
ence in  the  matter  of  such  supply  should  be  given  this  fixture  over 
all  others.  A  quick  supply  of  hot  water  may  be  secured  by  connect- 
ing the  flow  pipe  from  the  range  into  the  hot-water  pipe  at  the  top 
of  the  boiler  instead  of  into  the  side  of  the  boiler  as  generally  done. 
This  is  of  special  value  when  hot  water  is  required  at  the  kitchen 
sink  in  the  morning,  the  range  fire  having  been  allowed  to  go  out 
the  night  before. 


TABLE    OF    SIZES    OF    CAST-IRON    SINKS 

The  follow^ing  sizes  are  for  plain,  galvanized,  and  enameled  cast- 
iron  sinks,  the  depth  of  sink  being  6  inches,  and  the  dimensions  in 
inches. 


12  X  12 

12  X  20 

14  X  22 

16  X  16 

12   X  14 

14  X  14 

14  X  24 

16  X  20 

12  X  16 

14  X  18 

14  X  26 

16  X  24 

12  X  18 

14  X  20 

15  X  2y 

16  X  28 

17 


i8  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

i6  X  30  18  X  36  20  X  40  22  X  62 

16  X  36  18  X  42  20  X  42  22  X  76 

17  X  28  20  X  20  20  X  48  23  X  42 
17  X  30  20  X  24  20  X  60  23  X  48 

17  X  35  20  X  26  20  X  72  24  X  48 

18  X  18  20  X  28  21  X  42  24  X  50 
18  X  24  20  X  30  22  X  36  24  X  80 
18  X  28  20  X  32  22  X  40  24  X  120 
18  X  30  20  X  36  22  X  42  26  X  52 

18  X  Z2  20  X  38  22  X  48 

The  most  satisfactory  sizes  of  kitchen  sinks  for  family  use  are, 
viz. :  18  X  36,  20  X  36,  and  20  X  42.  If  space  allows,  20  X  42  is 
the  preferable  size.  Sinks  18  X  36  are  largely  used  in  the  cheaper 
class  of  work. 

All  sinks  are  cast  with  the  bottom  pitching  toward  the  outlet 
end.  Therefore  there  is  no  necessity  of  setting  the  sink  so  that  its 
top  is  other  than  level. 

A  valuable  device  for  use  in  connection  with  the  kitchen  sink  is 
the  flexible  wooden  sink  mat.  This  mat,  being  flexible,  will  fit  into  any 
sink,  and  in  the  case  of  enameled  or  porcelain  sinks  keeps  the  surface 
from  being  scratched  by  pots  and  kettles.  It  also  prevents  breakage 
in  setting  dishes,  etc.,  into  the  bottom  of  the  sink. 


VEGETABLE   AVASH    SINK 

A  fixture  now  much  used  in  high-grade  kitchen  work  of  resi- 
dences, hotels,  restaurants,  clubs,  etc.,  is  the  vegetable  wash  sink. 

This  fixture  is  generally  made  of  enameled  cast  iron  or  porcelain, 
and  is  provided  with  a  standing  overflow  at  one  end,  so  that  the  water 
may  fill  the  sink,  which  is  of  considerable  depth,  without  flowing  into 
the  waste. 

The  waste  and  vent  for  the  vegetable  wash  sink  are  of  the  same 
size  as  for  the  kitchen  sink. 

LAUNDRY    TUBS 

Laundry  tubs,  or  wash  trays,  are  made  of  porcelain,  enameled 
cast  iron,  soapstone,  slate,  and  artificial  stone. 

The  connections  for  this  fixture  are  shown  in  Plate  I.     The 


LAUNDRY    TUBS  19 

waste  outlet  from  each  section  of  the  laundry  tubs  should  be  i>4 
inches  in  size.  The  main  waste  and  trap  for  a  two-part  laundry  tub 
may  be  i^  inches,  and  for  laundry  tubs  of  three  to  six  sections,  the 
main  waste  and  trap  should  not  be  less  than  2  inches  in  size. 

The  vent  from  the  trap  of  a  set  of  laundry  tubs  should  not  be 
less  than  i^  inches  .in  size.  Formerly  this  fixture  was  made  of 
wood,  the  several  sections  sometimes  being  lined  with  sheet  metal. 
The  use  of  the  wooden  laundry  tubs  or  wooden  sink  should  be  pro- 
hibited, as  the  wood  readily  absorbs  moisture  and  filth,  and  the  fix- 
ture soon  becomes  unsanitary. 

For  use  in  general  work,  such  as  for  dwelling  houses,  and  the 
less  pretentious  residences,  laundry  tubs  either  of  slate  or  soapstone 
give  excellent  service. 

Laundry  tubs  of  artificial  stone  are  much  used  in  the  cheaper 
grades  of  work,  but  often  have  the  disadvantage  of  cracking  and 
crumbling,  especially  if  installed  in  cold  places,  where  frost  may  work 
into  the  stone.  A  strong  cement  for  mending  artificial  stone,  slate, 
and  soapstone  tubs  may  be  made  of  litharge  and  glycerine  formed 
into  a  paste,  which  is  very  hard  when  it  has  set,  and  very  durable. 

In  many  instances,  especially  in  flats  and  apartment  houses, 
the  laundry  tubs  are  located  in  the  kitchen,  close  to  the  sink.  When 
so  located,  it  is  customary  in  some  sections  to  allow  one  trap  to 
serve  both  fixtures.  This  is  considered  poor  practice  in  any  case, 
and  especially  when  applied  to  such  fixtures  as  the  kitchen  sink 
and  laundry  tubs.  Each  fixture  should  be  separately  trapped.  Al- 
though the  use  of  the  drum  trap  is  not  popular  in  certain  sections, 
in  connection  with  laundry  tubs  it  may  be  used  to  great  advantage 
many  times,  for  it  can  usually  be  located  more  advantageously  than 
the  S  trap,  and  is  of  sufficient  diameter  to  easily  receive  any  number 
of  waste  pipes  that  may  be  required  to  enter  it.  In  its  use,  a  less 
length  of  fouled  waste  connection  to  the  trap  is  able  to  throw  impure 
odors  into  the  room  than  in  such  a  connection  as  shown  in  Plate  I, 

When  the  kitchen  sink  and  laundry  tubs  are  each  to  be  located 
in  the  kitchen,  and  especially  when  it  is  necessary  to  economize  space, 
the  combination  kitchen  sink  and  laundry  tub  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage.   This  fixture  combines  the  two  fixtures  in  one. 


Plate  II 

LAVATORIES 


■for  l-o 


F>/o/-<z.   3. 


O       ^"'9  ^  ■ 


for    Ran  try  Sink 

27^  o  lie    Vei'd/' 


a  M 


rii ! — I c 


LAVATORIES 

Lavatories  are  generally  made  of  marble,  enameled  cast  iron, 
or  porcelain. 

Marble  is  fast  being  superseded  by  enameled  cast  iron  and  porce- 
lain. Marble  lavatories  present  opportunity  for  the  collection  of  filth 
in  the  joints  and  corners  between  the  marble  parts  and  between  the 
bowl  and  the  marble. 

Enameled  cast-iron  and  porcelain  lavatories  are  cast  in  one 
piece,  which  includes  both  the  back  and  the  bowl,  for  which  reason 
there  is  no  necessity  of  setting  the  bowl,  and  therefore  no  possibility 
that  it  may  become  loose  and  need  resetting,  as  often  happens  in  the 
use  of  marble  lavatories. 

Being  cast  in  one  piece,  there  are  no  joints  to  fill  up  with  filth. 
It  is  for  these  reasons  that  enameled  cast-iron  and  porcelain  lava- 
tories are  preferable  to  marble. 

The  waste  from  the  lavatory  is  generally  of  i^^^-inch  pipe,  but 
should  never  be  as  small  as  i  inch,  a  size  which  is  sometimes  used. 
The  trap  vent  should  also  be  i^  inches  in  size.  The  lavatory  should 
be  set  so  that  its  upper  surface  is  about  31  inches  from  the  floor. 
The  height  may,  of  course,  be  varied  to  suit  the  desires  of  the  owner. 

The  trap  of  this  fixture  is  very  liable  to  stoppage,  not  from  greasy 
matter  as  in  the  trap  of  the  kitchen  sink,  but  from  soap,  lint,  and  hair. 

Two  methods  of  making  waste  connections  for  the  lavatory  may 
be  followed,  shown  in  Plate  2  by  Figs.  A  and  B.  The  waste  may  be 
carried  to  the  floor,  as  in  Fig.  A,  or  directly  back  to  the  wall,  as  in 
Fig.  B.  The  latter  method  is  preferable,  as  the  waste  connection  so 
made  is  shorter,  there  is  less  of  the  work  exposed  to  rough  usage, 
and  a  separate  entrance  into  the  main  soil  or  waste  pipe  may  always 
be  secured.  The  vent  of  the  half  S-trap  may  be  taken  off  farther 
from  the  seal  than  in  the  case  of  the  full  S-trap,  resulting  in  a  lower 
rate  of  evaporation,  and  the  half  S-trap  is  less  subject  to  siphonage 
than  the  full  S-trap,  owing  to  the  long  outlet  arm  of  the  latter.  Usu- 
ally when  the  half  S-trap  can  be  used  for  the  lavatory,  or,  in  fact,  for 
any  other  fixture,  the  continuous  method  of  venting  may  be  applied, 

23 


24  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

as  shown  in  Fig.  B.    This  method  is  of  great  advantage  to  any  fixture, 
and  is  fully  described  under  Plate  26. 

An  objection  to  the  use  of  the  patent  overflow  bowl,  such  as 
shown  in  Figs.  A  and  B,  is  that  the  overflow  soon  becomes  coated 
Avith  filth,  which  often  throws  ofl:"  foul  odors  into  the  room.  The  use 
of  scented  soaps  increases  this  objectionable  feature. 

The  same  thing  occurs  in  public  toilet  rooms  when  a  line  of  sev- 
eral lavatories  is  served  by  a  single  trap  at  the  end  of  the  line.  This 
long  line  of  fouled  waste  pipe  sends  out  its  foul  odors  into  the  room 
through  the  outlet  of  each  bowl. 

Italian  and  Tennessee  marble  is  the  material  mostly  used  for 
marble  lavatories. 

On  good  work,  lavatory  top  slabs  are  countersunk,  with  moulded 
edges,  and  i}i  inch  thick.  The  backs  and  ends  for  lavatories  may 
be  8,  10,  12,  14,  18,  or  20  inches  in  height. 

The  standard  sizes  of  marble  slabs  for  lavatories  are  19  X  24, 
20  X  24,  20  X  26,  20  X  28,  20  X  30,  22  X  28,  22  X  30,  and  22  X  36. 

On  the  better  grades  of  work  the  larger  sizes  of  slabs,  with  high 
backs,  are  mostly  used. 

Lavatory  bowls  may  be  obtained  either  round  or  oval,  with  com- 
mon overflow  or  patent  overflow.  Round  bowls  are  made  of  12,  13, 
14,  15,  and  16  inch  diameter,  the  14-inch  bowl  being  largely  used  on 
general  .work. 

The  sizes  of  oval  bowls  are  14  X  17,  15  X  19,  and  16  X  21. 

The  bowl  is  generally  fastened  to  the  marble  slab  before  the 
latter  is  set  in  position.  The  bowl  is  attached  by  means  of  bowl 
clamps.  Three  or  four  bowl  clamps  may  be  used  on  round  bowls, 
but  not  less  than  four  on  oval  bowls. 

The  slab  is  drilled  out  to  receive  the  clamp  bolt,  the  hole  being 
cut  under  at  the  bottom.  The  bolt  is  held  firmly  in  the  marble  slab 
by  means  of  lead  poured  in  around  it  and  caulked,  the  under  cut  at 
the  bottom  clinching  the  lead  and  preventing  it  pulling  out.  The 
joint  between  the  bowl  and  the  marble  is  made  with  plaster-of-paris. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  marble  work,  the  making  of 
marble  cements  may  be  of  interest.  Portland  cement  withstands 
water,  as  also  a  cement  made  by  soaking  plaster-of-paris  in  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  alum,  the  mixture  being  baked  and  ground  into  a 
powder  and  applied  by  mixing  with  water.  A  putty  made  of  litharge 
and  glycerine  is  also  good. 


CONTENTS    OF    MARBLE    SLABS  25 

THE    PANTRY    SINK 

Pantry  sinks  commonly  in  use  are  made  of  sheet  copper;  the 
higher  grades  are  of  enameled  cast  iron  and  of  porcelain. 

A  very  satisfactory  oantry  sink  may  be  constructed  by  lining  a 
wooden  box,  of  proper  dimensions,  with  white  metal.  The  back  and 
drain  boards  should  also  be  lined  with  the  same  material.  This  work 
requires  the  services  of  a  skilled  workman,  for  it  is  a  difficult  matter 
to  lay  the  metal  smoothly  and  to  finish  the  joints  and  seams  so  that 
they  may  be  as  nearl}^  invisible  as  possible. 

Many  of  the  more  pretentious  residences  now  have  a  breakfast 
room  in  addition  to  the  dining  room,  each  being  provided  with  its 
own  special  pantry  sink. 

The  size  of  waste  for  the  pantry  sink  should  be  i^^  inch;  the 
size  of  trap  vent  should  also  be  i^  inch. 

The  pantry  sink  should  be  set  so  that  the  top  of  the  sink  is  about 
32  inches  from  the  floor. 

CONTENTS    OF    MARBLE    SLABS 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  marble  lavatories  the  follow- 
ing table  will  be  found  of  value.  Marble  slabs  are  sold  by  the  foot, 
and  from  this  table  the  contents  of  any  slab  from  6  X  i-  inches  to 
47  X  62  inches  may  be  quickly  found.  The  figures  in  the  top  hori- 
zontal line  show  the  widths  of  slabs,  and  the  figures  in  the  left-hand 
vertical  column  show  lengths.  In  estimating  on  slabs  with  finished 
edges  it  is  customary  to  add  one  inch  in  length  or  width,  as  the  case 
may  be,  for  each  finished  edge. 

The  following  example  will  show  the  manner  in  which  the  table 
is  to  be  used: 

It  is  required  to  find  the  contents  of  a  marble  slab  20  X  24  in., 
having  both  ends  and  the  front  edge  finished,  with  lo-inch  back. 
Adding  i  inch  for  each  finished  edge,  gives  the  slab  dimensions  as 
21  X  26  in.,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  back  as  11  X  26  in. 

Find  in  the  side  column  the  length,  26  inches,  and  in  the  upper 
line  the  width,  21  inches. 

To  the  right  of  the  26,  and  under  the  21,  will  be  found  the  con- 
tents of  a  slab  21  X  26  in.,  3  feet  10  inches,  and  in  the  same  manner 
the  contents  of  the  back  will  be  found  to  be  2  feet,  giving  a  total  of 
5  feet  10  inches.     End  pieces  will  be  found  in  the  same  way. 


26 


MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 


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CONTENTS    OF    MARBLE    SLABS 


27 


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Plate  III 
BATHS 


R/aZ-e  3. 


C^nnec/-/'=^ns    f^r 


Both     Tub 


ivi 


12^  02  Id 
VeiQf- 


/ 


Hn^ 


Ffp  A> 


/ 


Connzc/'/<=>ns  f^r 
/"oo/-    Bath  ^/Aj  Bath 


l27Z7s>eTJo2  ?Voc^/-e 


72^  oii^-  VsTZ  / 


j2-'=>2^ 


THE    BATH    TUB 

Most  of  the  higher  grades  of  bath  tubs  are  now  made  of  porce- 
lain or  enameled  cast  iron,  with  a  wide  roll  rim. 

The  less  expensive  styles  of  bath  tubs  are  made  of  an  inferior 
quality  of  enameled  cast  iron ;  of  steel  body  with  copper  lining,  known 
as  "  steel-clad  "  tubs,  and  of  steel  body,  enamel  painted. 

Of  the  cheaper  grades,  the  steel-clad  bath  tub  gives  good  service, 
but  the  enamel-painted  tub,  although  making  a  good  appearance  when 
new,  in  many  instances  soon  takes  on  a  very  shabby  appearance, 
owing  to  the  wearing  off  or  cracking  off  of  the  enamel  paint. 

The  bath-tub  waste  should  be  i^  inches  in  size,  and  its  trap 
vent  also  i)^  inch. 

The  regular  sizes  of  bath  tubs  are,  viz. :  4  ft.,  4  ft.  6  in.,  5  ft, 
5  ft.  6  in.,  and  6  ft.  The  5  ft.  and  5  ft.  6  in.  sizes  are  generally  the 
preferable  sizes.  The  two  smallest  sizes  are  too  short  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  bather,  and  should  be  used  only  when  space  will  not  allow 
the  use  of  a  larger  size.  The  old-style  sheathed-in  tub  is  no  longer 
installed  on  new  work.  This  form  of  bath  tub  presented  much  oppor- 
tunity for  the  collection  of  filth  around  its  upper  edges,  and  was  not 
nearly  so  cleanly  a  fixture  as  the  modern  bath  tubs,  which  are  easily 
kept  clean,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  porcelain  and  enamel-lined 
bath  tubs. 

It  is  often  required,  in  the  use  of  enamel-painted  baths,  to  put 
on  a  new  coat  of  enamel.  When  this  is  to  be  done,  the  surface  of  the 
tub  should  first  be  made  as  clean  and  smooth  as  possible,  following 
which  a  sufficient  number  of  coats  of  white  lead  should  be  applied  to 
prevent  the  dark  color  of  the  tub  from  showing  through,  after  which 
the  enamel  may  be  applied.  In  connection  with  the  bath  tub,  the  use 
of  traps  of  the  drum  pattern  is  good  practice.  A  better  grade  on 
the  outlet  of  this  trap  may  often  be  secured  than  from  the  S-trap, 
and  the  cleanout  of  the  former  is  much  more  accessible.  When  the 
S-trap  is  used  under  the  floor,  as  in  the  case  of  the  bath  tub,  an 
excellent  method  of  providing  a  cleanout  is  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  B, 
Plate  3. 

31 


32  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

This  makes  the  cleanout  accessible  without  the  removal  of  floor- 
ing, a  thing  which  is  necessary  ofttimes  in  order  to  operate  the  clean- 
out  at  the  bottom  of  the  S-trap. 

Whenever  the  latter  is  used  the  floor  above  it  should  be  screwed 
down,  so  that  it  may  be  taken  up  as  easily  as  possible  in  the  event 
of  repairs  to  the  trap. 


FOOT    BATH— SITZ    BATH— CHILD'S    BATH 

The  use  of  foot,  sitz,  and  child's  baths  is  not  found  to  any  extent 
except  in  bath  rooms  of  the  best  residences.  They  do  not  represent 
a  necessity  as  does  the  common  bath  tub,  but  are  luxuries  which 
add  much  to  the  comfort  of  the  bath  room. 

The  waste  for  each  of  these  three  baths  should  be  i}^  inch  in 
size,  and  the  trap  vent  also  i^^  inch.  In  general,  the  principles  that 
apply  to  the  ordinary  bath  tub  apply  also  to  the  foot,  sitz,  and  child's 
baths. 

THE    SHOWER    BATH 

The  shower  bath  generally  to  be  found  in  the  private  bath  room 
consists  of  a  cast-iron,  enameled,  or  porcelain  receptor  set  upon  the 
floor,  around  which  the  piping  is  arranged,  the  whole  being  inclosed 
by  rubber  curtains.  The  waste  is  connected  to  the  receptor,  and 
should  be  15^  inch  in  size,  the  vent  being  of  the  same  size. 

An  excellent  shower  device  is  also  made  for  use  in  connection 
with  the  lavatory.  It  consists  of  a  swinging  bracket  with  a  shower 
at  the  end  of  it,  the  swinging  part  being  connected  with  a  supply 
pipe  at  the  back  of  the  lavatory,  the  spray  being  thrown  down  into 
the  bowl. 

TRIMMINGS    FOR    BATHS    AND    LAVATORIES 

As  plumbing  is  now  constructed,  even  the  cheaper  grades  of 
work  include  a  large  amount  of  nickel  work,  in  which  there  is  a 
great  variety  of  material  to  select  from. 

Bi-transit  wastes  are  extensively  used  on  baths  and  lavatories 
of  the  better  grades.  This  device  allows  the  waste  to  flow  out  by 
the  lifting  of  a  plunger  instead  of  the  ordinary  plug.     It  adds   a 


SETTING    MARBLE    FLOOR    SLABS  33 

certain  finish  to  the  fixture,  but  also  adds  a  compHcation  which  pro- 
vides additional  surface,  which  may  become  foul  and  produce  odor. 
Li  general  the  simpler  plumbing  devices  are  the  more  satisfactory. 
Nickel-plated  supply  pipes  should  be  of  iron-pipe  size,  rather  than 
of  tubing,  as  the  former  can  be  screwed  into  the  concealed  iron  piping, 
while  the  tubing  must  be  connected  into  it  b}^  soldered  joints,  which 
are  not  so  substantial. 

Combination  cocks  for  baths  and  lavatories  are  very  satisfactory. 
Both  hot  and  cold  water  are  led  into  the  same  cock  in  the  combination 
devices,  and  by  properly  regulating  the  supply  of  each,  the  water 
may  very  easily  be  tempered  as  desired. 

Fuller  work  is  almost  entirely  used  on  high  grade  work,  not- 
withstanding that  the  quick  closing  of  this  work  is  often  accompanied 
by  vibrations  and  disagreeable  rumbling  of  the  pipes,  which  is  entirely 
absent  in  the  slower  closing  compression  work. 

On  much  of  the  cheaper  work  cast-iron,  nickel-plated  lavatory 
brackets  are  used.  These  are  not  satisfactory,  as  in  time  the  iron 
will  rust  through  the  nickel  plating,  and  the  bracket  will  present  a 
very  shabby  appearance. 

SETTING    MARBLE    FLOOR    SLABS 

Marble  slabs  are  much  used  under  all  bath-room  fixtures.  In 
setting  the  marble  slab  the  floor  should  be  cut  out  and  the  floor  slab 
set  in  to  such  a  depth  that  the  top  of  it  comes  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  above  the  floor.  The  floor  slab  should  never  be  set  on  top  of 
the  floor  if  the  latter  is  of  wood.  In  connecting  a  water  closet  to  a 
floor  slab,  a  brass  flioor  flange  and  rubber  gasket  should  be  used,  the 
former  being  secured  to  the  slab  by  means  of  expansion  bolts,  and 
set  in  plaster-of-paris  to  give  it  a  good  bearing.  The  floor  slab  itself 
should  properly  be  set  in  plaster-of-paris  and  leveled,  where  neces- 
sary, to  give  it  a  level  surface.  If  not  given  a  good  level  foundation 
the  slab  will  be  liable  to  rock. 

Slate  is  another  material  used  to  considerable  extent  for  floor 
slabs. 


Plate  IV 

WATER    CLOSET    CONNECTIONS 


"n 


Connections    f<^r 

er    C/o^^/- 


^IZL^J^   cs7o2Z^ 


<37IlZ.c^2e    ^2  7DG 


\ 

Sfoclz 


27S022S 


C/^scAs 


ITS  02  23    VCTdf 


<So2zifor^  o/ee 

r'9  B. 


WATER    CLOSET    CONNECTIONS 

The  waste  for  the  water  closet  should  be  4  in.  in  size,  but 
never  less. 

When  cast-iron  soil  pipe  is  used,  the  connection  is  made  by  means 
of  4-in.  lead  pipe  or  a  4-in.  lead  bend,  the  pipe  or  bend  being  wiped 
to  a  brass  ferrule  which  is  caulked  into  the  soil  pipe,  and  the  floor 
connection  generally  being  made  by  means  of  floor  flanges,  the  latter 
being  considered  under  Plate  17.  The  connection  of  the  water  closet 
to  wr ought-iron  soil  pipe  is  shown  under  Plate  45. 

The  water  closet  should  never  discharge  into  a  soil  pipe  of  less 
than  4  in. 

The  lead  bend  is  generally  connected  into  a  T-Y  or  modified 
form  of  this  fitting.  It  is  preferable  to  connect  into  a  bend  and  Y- 
branch,  as  shown  in  Plate  40,  Fig.  D,  or  into  the  same  combination 
of  fittings  arranged  vertically.  Such  connection  is  often  impossible, 
however,  owing  to  lack  of  space,  although  in  larger  work,  such  as 
public  toilet  rooms,  it  may  often  be  used  without  difiiculty. 

The  water-closet  flush  tank  should  be  set  so  that  the  bottom  of 
the  tank  is  as  nearl}^  6  ft.  from  the  floor  as  possible.  This  tank 
should  be  of  seven  gallons  capacity,  although  on  cheap  work  tanks 
of  five  gallons  capacity  are  largely  used. 

The  flush  pipe  from  tank  to  closet  should  be  1^4  ii^-  ii'i  size,  but 
never  smaller,  as  this  size  is  required  to  deliver  the  required  volume 
of  water  with  the  necessar}^  rapidity. 

The  flush  pipe  may  be  connected  rigidly  to  the  water  closet  or 
by  means  of  a  slip  joint  or  rubber  elbow.  The  latter  two  connections 
are  preferable,  as  any  settling  of  floors  or  slight  movement  of  the 
fixture  does  not  result  in  breaking  off  the  connection  to  the  bowl,  as 
often  happens  in  the  use  of  rigid  connections. 

The  flush  tank  should  always  be  provided  with  a  flush  valve  of 
the  siphon  pattern.  In  the  use  of  this  valve,  simply  a  slight  pull  on 
the  chain  is  needed  to  flush  the  entire  contents  of  the  tank,  while  in 
the  use  of  the  ordinary  flush  valve  the  flushing  of  the  water  closet 
continues  only  so  long  as  the  chain  is  pulled  down.     The  flush  may 


38  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

be  operated  in  many  other  ways  than  by  a  chain  and  pull — by  the 
weight  of  the  person  using  the  fixture;  by  the  opening  or  closing 
of  the  door ;  b}^  means  of  a  push  button  operating  a  crank  or  lever  to 
which  the  chain  is  attached.  The  latter  method  allows  the  tank  to 
be  concealed  behind  walls  or  partitions.  This  method  not  only  allows 
the  unsightly  high  tank  to  be  concealed,  but  also  enables  the  working 
parts  of  the  flush  tank  to  be  located  in  such  a  place  that  mischievous 
or  ignorant  people  are  unable  to  destroy  or  damage  them  in  any  way, 
an  evil  often  encountered  in  public  toilet  rooms. 

THE  VENTING  OF  WATER  CLOSETS 

The  vent  from  the  water  closet  should  be  2  in.  in  size,  but  never 
of  smaller  size. 

The  vent  pipe  is  usually  connected  to  the  lead  bend,  but  should 
never  be  connected  to  the  crockery  itself,  as  such  a  connection  must 
necessarily  be  rigid,  and  the  settling  of  floors,  slight  movement  of 
the  fixture,  etc.,  will  result  in  breaking  off  the  vent  horn. 

When  connected  to  the  lead  bend  the  vent  should  always  be 
taken  from  the  top  of  the  horizontal  part  of  the  bend — never  from 
the  vertical  part,  as  when  so  constructed  it  is  much  more  liable  to 
stoppage. 

Fig.  A  shows  an  excellent  method  of  venting  from  the  vent  hub 
of  a  vented  T-Y,  a  common  stock  fitting,  the  vent  pipe  being  of 
cast  or  wrought  iron. 

Fig.  B  shows  the  use  of  special  waste  and  vent  fittings,  of  which 
numerous  styles  are  now  on  the  market. 

This  waste  fitting  is  so  arranged  that  the  branch  to  the  fixture 
enters  the  side  of  the  main  body  of  the  fitting,  thus  allowing  the  fix- 
ture to  set  closer  to  the  wall  than  is  possible  with  the  waste  fitting 
of  Fig.  A.  Work  such  as  shown  in  these  two  illustrations  is 
growing  in  favor,  and  serves  to  show  the  decadence  of  lead  work 
and  the  increase  in  the  use  of  cast  and  wrought  iron  in  plumbing 
construction. 

Venting  being  employed  chiefly  to  prevent  the  siphonage  of  fix- 
ture traps,  it  is  unnecessary  to  vent  a  water  closet  which  is  located 
close  to  its  stack  and  in  a  position  secure  from  siphonic  influences. 
A  water  closet  set  close  to  the  stack,  on  the  top  floor,  and  without 
other  fixtures  on  that  floor  wasting  into  the  same  stack,  is  an  example 


THE    VENTING    OF    WATER    CLOSETS  39 

of  this.  A  water  closet  located  at  a  considerable  distance  from  its 
stack,  however,  should  always  be  vented,  for  through  the  long  hori- 
zontal connection  the  waste  would  necessarily  move  slowly,  particu- 
larly if  the  pipe  were  nearly  level,  and  an  obstruction,  such  as  might 
be  caused  by  paper,  etc.,  might  result  in  setting  the  water  back  suffi- 
ciently to  fill  the  pipe,  and  this  body  of  water  in  flowing  out  might 
create  sufficient  suction  to  partially  or  entirely  destroy  the  seal  of 
the  water-closet  trap. 

In  the  case  of  fixtures  located  on  floors  above  the  water  closet 
the  influence  of  siphonic  conditions  may  also  be  felt,  for  as  waste 
from  these  fixtures  descends  in  large  volume  past  the  entrance  of 
the  lead  bend,  the  air  becomes  somewhat  exhausted,  and  is  not  renewed 
quickly  enough  to  prevent  a  part  of  the  trap  seal  being  siphoned  or 
sucked  out. 

This  loss  may  amount  to  but  a  few  drops,  but  when  continued 
indefinitely  may  result  in  the  complete  loss  of  seal,  aided,  as  it  often 
is,  by  additional  loss  due  to  evaporation  in  the  case  of  fixtures  seldom 
used. 

As  far  as  the  siphonage  of  the  water-closet  trap  is  concerned, 
this  danger  is  less  to  be  feared  than  in  connection  with  smaller  traps, 
for  the  reason  that  to  produce  siphonage  of  a  column  of  water  4 
inches  in  diameter  requires  much  stronger  influences  than  to  produce 
the  same  result  on  smaller  traps. 

Nevertheless,  the  water-closet  trap  is  probably  much  more  sub- 
ject to  siphonage  than  it  is  generally  supposed  to  be,  and  if  strict 
ordinances  regarding  its  protection  were  not  established  and  enforced, 
the  trouble  arising  from  this  cause  would  be  much  more  extensive 
than  it  now  is. 

There  is  probably  no  part  of  the  plumbing  system  which  occa- 
sions so  much  trouble  as  the  ball  cock  which  supplies  the  water-closet 
flush  tank  with  water. 

Two  styles  of  ball  cock  are  in  use,  the  bottom  supply  and  the 
top  supply. 

Bottom  supply  makes  neater  looking  work,  but  in  other  respects 
the  advantage  seems  to  be  with  the  top  supply. 

In  the  bottom  supply  the  ball  cock  is  located  at  the  bottom  of 
the  tank,  while  in  the  top  supply  it  is  at  the  top,  and  therefore  much 
more  accessible  in  the  event  of  repairs.  This  is  especially  true  of 
tanks  located  close  to  ceilings. 


40       MODERN  PLUMBING  ILLUSTRATED 

Under  these  conditions,  if  provided  with  a  bottom  supply,  the 
tank  must  be  taken  down  to  repair  the  ball  cock,  w4iile  in  the  case 
of  top  supply  it  can  usually  be  repaired  without  such  inconvenience. 
Ball  cocks  may  be  further  divided  into  two  classes,  direct  and  indi- 
rect pressure.  The  indirect  pressure  ball  cock,  which  is  commonly 
used  and  least  expensive,  is  generally  provided  with  a  5  or  6  inch 
copper  ball,  which  closes  the  valve  by  its  buoyancy.  The  direct  pres- 
sure ball  cock  works  on  another  principle  than  the  indirect,  the  Vv^ater 
being  conducted  to  the  rear  of  the  plunger,  thereby  adding  the  force 
of  the  water  pressure  to  the  buoyancy  of  the  float  in  closing  the 
valve.  In  the  direct  pressure  ball  cock,  a  heavy  ball  or  float  must 
be  used,  as  a  considerable  weight  is  necessary  to  enable  the  ball  cock 
to  open  against  pressure.  The  light  copper  ball  used  on  the  indirect 
pressure  ball  cock  w^ould  be  inadequate  to  perform  this  duty. 

Glass  floats  are  now  much  in  favor  in  connection  with  ball  cocks, 
as  they  provide  sufficient  weight  and  are  more  durable  than  the  copper 
floats  which  are  now  largely  used. 

As  a  result  of  keen  competition,  copper  floats  are  now  largely 
made  of  sheet  copper  that  is  so  thin  that  it  can  withstand  almost  no 
rough  usage. 

Some  of  the  necessary  requirements  in  a  ball  cock  is  that  it  shall 
be  as  nearly  noiseless  as  possible,  quick  closing,  easy  to  repair,  of 
simple  construction,  and  made  of  a  high  grade  of  metal  free  from 
impurities,  so  that  the  water  may  not  act  chemically  upon  the  valve 
seat  and  destroy  it. 


Plate  V 

THE    LOW-DOWN    WATER    CLOSET— FLUSH 
VALVES— WATER    CLOSET    RANGES 


P/otz  5. 


tL 


liVoZ-zr    Cl^szf-    Opz/^aZ-ec/   by 
Flushing    \/a/{/z 


Vo I  ve 


f^ 


(Sujs>7q)2j^  ^ijQ)e 


Ve2zf 


77S02  2Z 


THE    LOW-DOWN    WATER    CLOSET 

The  low-down  water  closet  appears  to  be  displacing  the  high- 
tank  water  closet  to  a  large  extent.  Some  of  the  advantages  of  this 
style  of  water  closet  are,  viz. :  the  flush  tank  is  more  accessible,  and, 
being  covered,  prevents  dust,  dirt,  etc.,  from  entering  the  tank  and 
doing  harm  to  the  valves ;  and,  because  of  the  small  elevation  required, 
it  may  be  used  in  many  places  where  the  high  tank  could  not  be  used. 

The  low-down  tank,  however,  requires  the  setting  of  the  water 
closet  further  out  into  the  room. 

With  the  exception  of  the  difi^erences  in  the  flushing  arrange- 
ment, the  principles  that  apply  to  the  high-tank  water  closet  also 
apply  to  the  low-down  style. 

The  flush  of  the  low-down  water  closet  as  it  enters  the  bowl  has 
very  little  head,  while  in  the  case  of  the  high  tank  it  has  a  head  due 
to  an  elevation  of  6  ft.  This  lack  is  made  up  by  providing  a  much 
larger  flush  pipe,  in  order  that  a  large  volume  of  water  may  enter 
the  bowl  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  produce  siphonage.  A  water 
closet  of  the  siphon  pattern  should  be  used  in  connection  with  the 
low-down  tank,  as  enough  water  cannot  enter  to  produce  good  results 
except  by  siphonage. 


OPERATION  OF  THE  WATER  CLOSEl'  BY  FLUSH 

VALVE 

The  flush  valve  is  a  comparatively  recent  device,  introduced 
for  the  purpose  of  flushing  the  water  closet  without  the  use  of  the 
flush  tank. 

Urinals  and  slop  sinks  may  also  be  flushed  by  the  same  device. 

The  advantages  of  the  flush  valve  are  many.  It  may  be  operated 
on  direct  or  tank  pressure,  on  high  and  low  pressure;  it  is  noiseless; 
it  may  easily  be  concealed;  it  may  be  made  to  work  automatically; 
and  it  may  be  used  in  many  places  and  under  many  conditions  where 
it  would  be  very  difficult  and  unsatisfactory  to  use  a  tank  closet. 

43 


44  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

It  is  used  very  extensively  in  public  buildings,  in  marine  work, 
and  in  high-class  residence  work. 

The  subject  of  the  application  of  the  flush  valve  is  considered 
further  under  Plate  42. 


WATER    CLOSET    RANGE 

While  range  closets  are  not  to  be  compared  with  individual 
water  closets  as  sanitary  fixtures,  the  high-grade  modern  range 
closets  represent  a  great  step  in  advance  of  the  old-style  range.  The 
great  objection  to  the  range  water  closet  is  that  soil  entering  one  of 
the  compartments  is  not  carried  away  at  once,  as  soon  as  the  use  of 
it  has  ceased,  but  must  remain  until  the  flush  for  the  entire  range 
operates.  During  this  interval  it  is  throwing  out  into  the  room  foul 
odors,  and  when  this  same  thing  is  occurring  in  the  case  of  a  num- 
ber of  compartments  it  can  plainly  be  seen  that  the  range  water  closet 
is  not  so  conducive  to  the  maintaining  of  a  clean,  sanitary  toilet  room 
as  is  the  individual  water  closet  with  its  immediate  flush.  The  flush 
of  the  individual  water  closet,  moreover,  is  more  effective  than  that 
of  a  range,  and  there  is  less  liability  of  fouled  surfaces  in  the  former. 
The  range  water  closet  consists  in  general  of  a  long  trough,  directly 
into  which  the  several  seats  open.  In  the  modern  range  this  trough 
may  be  above  the  floor  or  below  it.  In  the  latter  case,  the  bowl  of 
each  compartment  has  the  appearance,  to  those  not  familiar  with  the 
subject,  of  being  an  ordinary  individual  water  closet.  A  closer  inves- 
tigation, however,  will  show  that  it  is  not  what  it  first  appears  to  be. 

The  range  closets  now  used  are  generall}^  automatically  flushed, 
the  flush  operating  at  stated  intervals.  This  interval  may  be  made 
longer  or  shorter  by  operating  the  valve  on  the  supply  pipe  to 
the  tank. 

Most  ranges  are  now  provided  with  an  automatic  siphon  which 
is  started  when  the  flush  enters  the  range,  and  continues  until  the 
water  in  the  flush  tank  drops  to  such  a  level  that  air  is  admitted  to 
a  pipe  communicating  with  the  crown  of  the  siphon.  This  breaks  the 
siphon,  and  the  rest  of  the  water  that  enters  the  range  remains  there 
until  the  next  fl.ush. 

This  water  prevents  the  surface  of  the  range  trough  from  becom- 
ing fouled. 


WATER    CLOSET    RANGE  45 

The  action  of  the  automatic  flush  and  siphon  is  strong,  and 
very  satisfactory. 

The  best  feature  of  the  modern  range  water  closets,  however,  is 
the  local  vent  which  is  provided  with  many  of  them.  At  the  end  of 
the  range  a  12  or  14-in.  opening  is  provided  w^ith  a  collar  to  which 
the  local  vent  pipe  is  attached,  and  the  latter  carried  into  a  heated 
flue.     Such  a  flue  should  not  fail  to  be  heated  throughout  the  year. 

The  action  of  the  local  vent  under  a  strong  draught  is  very 
effective  in  the  use  of  the  range  water  closet.  The  draught  draws 
impure  air  into  the  range  through  each  seat  opening,  not  only  carry- 
ing it  out  of  the  toilet  room,  but  preventing  the  odors  occasioned  by 
the  use  of  the  fixture  from  rising  into  the  room. 

The  range  water  closet  should  not  be  used  without  a  strong- 
acting  local  vent.  Modern  range  water  closets  are  generally  of 
enamel-lined  or  porcelain  ware,  which  is  far  more  cleanly  for  the  pur- 
pose than  cast  iron,  such  as  was  formerly  much  used.  Of  the  modern 
styles  of  ranges,  the  type  in  which  the  seat  opens  into  the  range 
trough  through  a  short  bowl  attached  to  the  trough  is  preferable  to 
the  longer  bowl,  which  presents  greater  opportunity  for  fouling.  The 
latter  is  a  serious  matter  in  connection  with  the  range  water  closet, 
as  there  is  no  flush  around  the  bowl  as  in  the  individual  water  closet. 
Many  cities  prohibit  the  use  of  range  closets,  and  this  is  a  proper 
regulation,  as  the  toilet  rooms  of  schools,  factories,  etc.,  where  the 
range  is  mostly  used,  are  difficult  to  maintain  in  a  cleanly  condition 
at  best,  and  the  use  of  individual  water  closets  reaches  the  desired 
end  much  more  satisfactorilv. 


Plate  VI 

THE    SLOP    SINK— URINAL-BIDET 


S/<=>p     Sink 


P/oZ-e  6. 


J§>ocJz 


<i)ta22Clorcl 
CI  e  ojs  ^iz/  — *- 


fc^ 


773  o  J  i^ 


77^022^ 


R^ 


VCTZ/- 


77^0278 


f^s^ 


q72iz^7^ 


C<^nnecti<^ns    f^r 


172^7 73 a 2  C<=^c2z' 


<^Ja/e 


¥ 


THE    SLOP    SINf 


:V 


The  best  forms  of  slop  sink  are  those  of  enamel  lined  or  porce- 
lain ware. 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  waste  which  enters  it  the  slop  sink 
becomes  a  very  foul  and  unsanitary  fixture  unless  properly  con- 
structed. The  most  approved  type  is  that  having  a  flushing  rim  and 
provided  with  a  flush  tank.  As  the  water  enters  the  slop  sink  through 
the  flushing  rim  its  entire  surface  is  thoroughly  flushed  and  cleansed. 
The  use  of  plain  cast-iron  slop  sinks,  flushed  only  by  means  of  a 
common  faucet,  is  very  poor  practice  indeed.  Such  a  fixture  it  is 
impossible  to  keep  in  a  sanitary  condition,  and  a  foul-smelling  room 
must  result  from  its  use. 

The  waste  of  the  slop  sink  should  be  3  in.  in  size ;  the  size  of  the 
vent  should  be  2  in.  The  best  form  of  trap  for  this  fixture  is  one 
which  is  enameled  over  its  entire  interior  and  exterior  surfaces,  and 
which  presents  no  metal  surfaces  which  may  corrode  and  foul.  The 
slop-sink  trap  should  be  provided  with  a  2-in.  cleanout,  and  it  is 
excellent  practice  to  provide  a  cleanout,  when  possible,  at  the  end  of 
the  horizontal  waste  from  the  fixture,  as  shown  in  Plate  6. 

The  opening  of  the  vent  into  the  slop-sink  trap  is  large  and  not 
so  liable  to  stoppage  as  the  vent  opening  of  lead  traps  of  smaller  size. 
An  excellent  trap  of  comparatively  recent  construction  is  the  adjust- 
able slop-sink  trap.  It  is  of  the  half-S  pattern,  attached  to  a  standard 
resting  on  the  floor  in  the  usual  manner.  The  height  of  the  outlet 
above  the  floor  can  be  adjusted  by  means  of  a  nipple,  to  meet  rough- 
ing requirements,  and  the  trap  being  of  the  half-S  type,  the  continu- 
ous vent  may  be  used  in  connection  with  it.  On  high-grade  work 
the  slop  sink  is  often  provided  with  a  local  vent. 

This  local  vent  should  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  local  vent  of 
the  water  closet;  it  should  enter  a  heated  flue,  and  in  other  respects 
be  installed  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  local  vent  of  the  water  closet. 
When  the  slop  sink  is  of  the  flushing-rim  type,  and  is  provided  with 
a  flush  tank  of  adequate  size  and  also  local  vent,  it  may  be  made  a 

49 


50  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

very  sanitary  fixture.  The  size  of  the  slop-sink  flush  tank  should  be 
of  5  gallons  capacity.  In  addition  to  the  type  of  fixture  described 
above,  the  waste-preventive  slop  hopper  is  used  to  a  limited  extent. 
This  fixture  is  flushed  automatically  by  the  emptying  of  slops 
into  it,  the  flushing  being  accomplished  by  the  creation  of  a  vacuum 
which  produces  siphonage.  As  intimated  above,  however,  this  fixture 
is  used  only  to  a  limited  extent. 


THE    URINAL 

The  form  of  urinal  shown  in  Plate  6  is  the  Bedfordshire  lip 
urinal  with  flat  back.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  urinal  most  com- 
monly in  use.  This  fixture  is  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  sev- 
eral of  which  are  shown  in  Plate  43. 

The  waste  of  the  lip  urinal  should  be  not  less  than  i^  in.  in 
size,  although  a  waste  2  in.  in  size  is  now  sometimes  used. 

The  vent  should  be  i^  in.  in  size. 

The  urinal  should  be  set  so  that  the  lip  comes  about  24  in.  from 
the  floor.  This  height  should  be  less  when  the  urinal  is  used  in  toilet 
rooms  for  small  boys. 

All  lip  urinals  should  be  of  the  flushing  rim  type.  The  flushing 
rim  allows  the  entire  surface  of  the  interior  to  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
at  each  flush.  The  lip  urinal  may  be  flushed  as  shown  in  Plate  6, 
the  flush  being  under  direct  pressure,  and  operated  by  means  of  a 
urinal  cock  attached  to  the  top  of  the  urinal.  It  may  also  be  flushed 
from  a  tank  serving  a  single  fixture  or  a  group.  This  flush  tank 
may  be  of  the  automatic  type,  flushing  the  group  of  urinals  at  regular 
intervals. 

Owing  to  the  conditions  surrounding  the  use  of  the  urinal,  the 
known  carelessness  of  many  of  the  people  using  it,  and  the  character 
of  the  waste  entering  it,  the  partitions,  backs,  and  flooring  should 
never  be  of  wood  or  of  any  material  which  may  corrode.  When 
wood  is  used  for  these  purposes  it  soon  absorbs  moisture  with  its 
impurities,  and  in  a  short  time  becomes  very  unsanitary.  Slate  is 
the  proper  and  commonly  used  material  for  this  purpose.  A  form 
of  urinal,  which  is  not  shown  in  Plate  43,  is  the  waste-preventive 
urinal,  which  works  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  waste-pre- 
ventive slop  hopper.     The  fixture  is  of  such  sensitive  action  that  the 


THE    BIDET  51 

entrance  of  urine  into  the  trap  acts  to  form  a  vacuum  which  produces 
siphonage  and  the  immediate  operation  of  the  flush.  This  fixture  is 
not  in  extensive  use,  however,  although  an  excellent  device. 


THE    BIDET 

The  bidet  is  a  fixture  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  and, 
although  not  commonly  in  use,  its  use  is  increasing. 

It  is  a  bath-room  or  toilet-room  fixture,  and  to  be  found  prin- 
cipally in  the  bath  room  or  ladies'  toilet  rooms  of  pretentious  resi- 
dences.    The  bidet  is  similar  in  shape  to  the  water  closet. 

The  waste  for  the  bidet  should  be  i^  in.,  and  the  vent  of  the 
same  size. 

Owing  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed,  however,  the 
supply  to  the  bidet  is  of  a  much  different  character  than  that  of 
the  water  closet.  Both  hot  and  cold  water  should  be  supplied  to  the 
bidet,  entering  the  fixture  through  its  side  and  rising  inside  the  bowl 
in  the  form  of  a  jet  and  douche. 

The  supply  also  passes  through  the  flushing  rim  in  order  to 
thoroughly  cleanse  the  fixture.  In  connection  with  the  bidet,  a  mixer, 
similar  in  character  to  the  valve  on  shower  baths,  is  generally  used. 
This  allows  either  hot  or  cold  water,  or  water  of  any  degree  of 
warmth  to  be  used.  Such  valves  should  be  of  some  non-scalding 
pattern. 


Plate  VII 

THE     HOTEL    OR     RESTAURANT    SINK- 
THE    USE    OF    GREASE    TRAPS 


H^hzl  o/-    Rzshourafnt    S/nk 


12§az2^   Ve^j^  / 


^^ 


vTS  (72  2^  (^/-ocJe, 


(^iisJz  ^acJs 


I  I 


\ 

^ : 


1   I 
I   I 


ff=a     ^x 


® 


7 


/ 1 2^  le/- 


Grzasz    Trap 


-'^^'f^^^^^^^^^^^^^^>^^^^^^^^''^^^^^^j^^\ 


C^jrer 


--^=^  c7oc2ze/■ 


^^ 


h- 


\\\\\\\\x 


^% 


■^■^^^^^^ 


^ 


C<^2d  Wc^/ez'  Ijelef 


^ 


THE    HOTEL    OR    RESTAURANT    SINK 

The  waste  and  vent  pipes  of  the  ordinary  kitchen  sink  are  gen- 
erally i^  in.  in  size.  The  waste  and  vent  of  the  kitchen  sink,  when 
used  in  hotel,  restaurant,  boarding  house,  and  club  kitchens,  or  when 
used  in  other  public  or  private  establishments  which  call  for  its  almost 
constant  use,  should  never  be  less  than  2  in.  in  size.  The  amount  of 
greasy  matter  entering  such  sinks  is  very  great,  even  when  the  utmost 
precaution  is  used,  and  it  is  very  necessary  to  so  construct  the  work 
in  connection  with  such  a  sink  that  stoppage  shall  have  the  least 
possible  opportunity.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  sewage  con- 
taining grease  comes  in  contact  with  a  cold  surface,  the  grease  will 
separate  from  the  sewage  and  adhere  to  such  surface.  This  often 
occurs  in  soil  and  waste  pipes,  the  pipes  running  through  cellars 
being  cold  and  therefore  well  calculated  to  collect  grease.  When  the 
grease  begins  to  collect  it  continues  to  increase  in  thickness,  until  in 
time  the  entire  bore  of  the  pipe  is  filled.  The  collection  of  grease 
practically  forms  a  body  of  hard  soap  in  the  pipe,  and  a  stoppage  of 
such  nature  cannot  be  dislodged  by  ordinary  means  of  forcing  stop- 
pages, but  necessitates  taking  down  the  pipe  and  clearing  out  each 
length. 

For  this  reason,  on  horizontal  lines  of  waste  from  sinks  used  in 
hotels,  restaurants,  etc.,  a  cleanout  should  be  inserted  at  intervals 
of  ten  feet  in  the  piping. 

Money  put  into  cleanouts  on  such  work  as  this  is  always  well 
invested,  as  their  use  will  eventually  avoid  the  necessity  of  taking 
down  the  waste  piping,  an  expensive  undertaking. 

THE    USE    OF    GREASE    TRAPS 

When  conditions  are  such  that  a  great  amount  of  grease  neces- 
sarily enters  the  kitchen-sink  waste,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  grease 
trap,  a  form  of  which  is  to  be  seen  in  Fig.  7,  this  form  representing 
the  best  type  of  such  traps. 

As  already  stated,  contact  with  cold  surfaces  causes  the  grease 

55 


56  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

in  sewage  to  separate  from  the  liquid,  a  fact  which  is  made  use  of  in 
the  operation  of  this  or  any  other  grease  trap.  The  body  of  the  trap 
is  surrotmded  entirely  by  a  water  jacket  or  chamber,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  top.  In  addition,  the  partition  in  the  center  of  the  trap, 
which  is  designed  to  aid  in  breaking  up  the  sewage  and  deflecting 
the  grease  upward,  is  also  formed  into  a  water  chamber. 

The  w^ater  pipe  supplying  the  kitchen  sink  is  connected  at  the 
inlet  and  outlet  ends  of  this  water  jacket,  cold  water  thus  flowing 
through  the  jacket  constantly  and  changing  whenever  water  is  drawn 
at  the  sink.  If  the  jacket  were  simply  filled  with  water  and  not 
changed  there  would  be  no  cooling  effect,  but  the  method  described 
keeps  the  surfaces  against  which  the  waste  comes  in  contact  always 
cool,  resulting  efifectively  in  the  separation  of  the  grease,  which  rises 
to  the  top  and  is  taken  out  through  the  removable  cover.  The  trap 
outlet  is  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  trap,  instead  of  at  the  top,  to  aid 
in  preventing  the  escape  of  the  grease. 

The  partition  through  the  center  of  the  trap  also  helps  to  pre- 
vent grease  entering  the  trap  from  being  carried  over  into  the  outlet. 

While  the  water  jacket  surrounding  the  trap  does  effective  work, 
a  large  part  of  the  results  obtained  is  due  to  the  presence  of  the  hol- 
low partition  or  deflector.  This  trap  is  of  cast  iron  and  made  in 
several  sizes. 

Less  expensive  and  less  satisfactory  grease  traps  are  made  on 
the  same  general  lines  as  the  trap  just  described,  but  not  provided 
wath  a  water  jacket.  Many  of  them  do  very  good  work,  but  it  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  they  can  hold  back  as  large  a  part  of  the  grease 
as  the  trap  does  which  is  cooled  continuously  by  the  water  supply. 
There  is  one  point  in  the  use  of  the  grease  trap  which  does  not  always 
receive  consideration — the  amount  of  money  to  be  derived  from  the 
sale  of  grease  coming  from  the  grease  trap.  In  large  establishments 
this  is  often  a  very  respectable  sum  of  money.  Traps  similar  in 
design  to  the  one  described  are  also  made  of  wrought  steel.  Cast 
iron,  however,  would  seem  to  be  less  in  danger  of  deterioration  than 
wrought  steel,  w^hich  is  more  easily  acted  upon  by  acids.  The  grease 
trap,  on  a  larger  scale,  in  the  form  of  a  catch  basin,  is  sometimes 
located  outside  the  building,  underground,  and  into  this  receptacle 
all  the  kitchen  waste  from  kitchen  sinks,  pantry  sinks,  dishwashing 
sinks,  etc.,  is  discharged.  The  great  advantage  gained  in  the  use 
of  such  a  catch  basin  is  that  it  is  constantly  cooled  by  the  moisture  of 


THE  USE  OF  GREASE  TRAPS         57 

the  ground  in  which  it  is  located.  It  should  always  be  set  low  enough 
in  the  ground  to  be  out  of  danger  of  freezing.  If  it  is  impossible  to 
so  install  it,  the  catch  basin  should  never  be  used.  A  serious  disad- 
vantage in  the  use  of  the  underground  catch  basin  is  that  generally 
its  use  necessitates  a  long  line  of  horizontal  waste  pipe  from  the 
kitchen  to  the  catch  basin,  and  in  this  pipe  and  its  connections  grease 
has  abundant  opportunity  to  collect  before  reaching  the  catch  basin, 
resulting  in  the  ultimate  stoppage  of  such  pipes. 

These  pipes  generally  run  in  cool  cellars  and  for  a  distance  under- 
ground, which  favors  the  collection  of  more  or  less  of  the  grease  on 
their  surfaces.  The  better  plan  would  seem  to  be  the  use  of  grease 
traps  under  the  fixtures  in  the  kitchen,  with  systematic  attention  given 
to  the  removal  of  grease  that  accumulates. 

In  the  case  of  a  line  of  kitchen  sinks  or  of  dishwashing  sinks, 
one  grease  trap  of  proper  size  may  be  used  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  entire  number  of  fixtures.  Catch  basins  for  kitchen  waste 
may  be  of  brick  or  cast  iron,  and  should  never  be  less  than  30  in.  in 
internal  diameter,  tapering  toward  the  top,  if  desired,  to  about  22  to 
24  in.,  and  provided  with  a  cast-iron  cover.  If  of  brick,  they  should 
be  made  water-tight.  The  drain  from  the  kitchen  catch  basin  to  the 
sewer  may  be  of  glazed  tile,  and  should  be  not  less  than  5  in.  in 
diameter  and  provided  with  a  trap  having  a  deep  seal. 


Plate  VIII 

REFRIGERATORS— SAFE     WASTES— TANK 
OVERFLOW— SPECIAL  WASTES 


P/af-e  8. 
R<2frigzroh<^r 


(^  r^ 


•I 


Vei3f 


? 


o 


o 


r'9-  A 


Cl't 


^  f-rojTZ 
er 


frig,  c. 


rc?n 


^ 


c 

c 


l2zver/-ed 

jQ>rU77Q    0/2^0 Jo) 

^  Cellar  <Si73}z 
=f    ^U7^ Tilled  ?Tj/J^  TYofer 

F^9  ^' 


REFRIGERATORS 

Refrigerators  should  never,  under  any  condition,  be  directly 
connected  to  any  part  of  the  drainage  system. 

This  restriction  makes  it  necessary  to  provide  connections  for 
the  refrigerator  on  an  entirely  different  principle  from  those  of  the 
regular  plumbing  fixtures.  The  refrigerator  should  drip  into  a  pan 
beneath  it,  which  should  be  trapped,  the  waste  from  the  trap  dripping 
into  an  open  sink. 

The  sink  should  be  trapped  and  vented  in  the  usual  manner,  and 
may  be  connected  to  any  soil  or  waste  pipe. 

The  use  of  the  drum  trap  is  good  practice,  as  it  may  easily  be 
cleaned  of  the  slime  and  sawdust  which  collects  in  considerable  quan- 
tity. It  also  has  a  much  deeper  seal  to  withstand  evaporation  when 
the  refrigerator  is  out  of  use. 

The  methods  shown  in  Figs.  A  and  B  amply  protect  the  refrig- 
erator, for  there  is  not  only  the  trap  usually  found  inside  the 
refrigerator,  and  the  other  two  traps,  but  also  the  two  breaks  in  the 
connections. 

The  outlet  from  the  refrigerator  trap  should  discharge  as  far 
from  the  sink  outlet  as  possible.  It  is  preferable  to  drip  into  a  sink 
in  common  use,  as  the  renewal  of  its  trap  seal  is  ensured,  but  if 
impracticable,  a  special  sink  may  be  employed. 

It  is  permissible  also  to  discharge  the  refrigerator  waste  into  a 
cellar-floor  drain,  yard  drain,  or  into  a  trap  provided  with  a  receiv- 
ing funnel.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  brass  screw 
cover  or  a  gate  valve  for  closing  the  trap  when  the  refrigerator  is 
not  in  use. 

The  waste  from  the  refrigerator  should  never  be  less  than  i^-^ 
in.  in  size.  Short  wastes  and  traps  may  be  of  lead,  but  long  lines 
should  be  of  galvanized  wrought  iron. 

The  refrigerator  waste  should  have  as  sharp  a  grade  as  possible. 

Fig.  C  represents  a  desirable  form  of  refrigerator  drip  pan. 
The  box  is  lined  with  metal,  formed  so  that  all  drippings  entering 
the  pan  flow  toward  the  outlet,  which  is  provided  with  a  strainer  and 

6i 


62  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

brass  screw  cover,  the  latter  for  use  when  the  refrigerator  is  not 
being  used. 

The  requirements  for  refrigerators  apply  also  to  ice  boxes,  or 
any  other  receptacle  for  food  or  provisions  which  it  is  necessary 
to  drain. 


SAFE    WASTES— TANK    OVERFLOW 

Wastes  from  safes,  drip  pans,  etc.,  should  not  be  directly  con- 
nected to  any  part  of  the  drainage  system. 

Such  wastes  should  discharge  into  a  sink  or  laundry  tub,  cellar- 
floor  drain,  or  deep  seal  trap. 

The  lower  end  of  such  a  pipe  should  have  a  brass  flap  valve  to 
prevent  the  passage  of  cellar  air. 

The  overflow  from  the  attic  tank  or  other  similar  tank  should 
not  be  directly  connected  to  the  drainage  system,  but  should  be  dis- 
charged upon  the  roof  or  into  an  open  fixture.  It  is  often  convenient 
to  discharge  this  overflow  into  the  flush  tank  of  a  water  closet  on  a 
floor  below  the  tank.  This  overflow  should  never  be  less  than  i^  in. 
in  size,  and  i^-in.  pipe  is  often  better. 


FLOOR   DRAINS   AND   DRIPS   FROM   ICE  HOUSES,   ETC. 

Floor  drains,  etc.,  used  for  the  draining  of  ice  houses,  refrig- 
erator rooms,  storage  rooms  for  provisions,  etc.,  or  for  draining  any 
room  where  food  is  prepared,  should  not  be  directly  connected  to 
the  drainage  system,  but  should  discharge  into  an  open  catch  basin 
or  trapped  sink  located  outside  the  building,  the  outer  end  of  the  pipe 
being  provided  with  a  brass  flap  valve. 


LAUNDRY  WASTE— CREAMERY  WASTE 

The  waste  from  washing  machinery  in  laundries,  from  similar 
machines  in  breweries  and  other  establishments  where  a  large  volume 
of  water  is  constantly  used,  and  from  receptacles  and  sinks  used  in 
creameries,  may  be  discharged  onto  the  floor,  provided  it  is  water- 
tight, properly  graded,  and  provided  with  a  suitable  floor  drain. 


Plate  IX 

REFRIGERATOR  LINES— BAR   AND  SODA 
FOUNTAIN     SINKS  —  EXHAUSTS  — 
BLOW-OFFS,    ETC. 


Line    <=>/  Ffefrigero/'^rs 


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r'9  A- 


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(i/Iop  Valine 


f/'g.  B. 


Sij^Jt    2ia  Cellar 
<SLLpjQ>lied   i^ifh  ?Vofer 


,  REFRIGERATOR   LINES 

The  size  of  a  line  of  waste  pipe  serving  refrigerators  on  two 
floors  should  be  at  least  i^  in.,  for  three  or  four  floors  i^  in.,  and 
for  more  than  four  floors  2  in. 

Galvanized  wrought-iron  pipe  is  generally  used  for  this  work, 
and  all  branches  from  this  pipe  should  be  made  by  means  of  forty- 
five-degree  Y-branches. 

Refrigerator  traps  do  not  require  venting,  as  no  conditions  are 
present  to  cause  siphonage  of  their  contents. 

The  waste  pipe  which  serves  a  line  of  refrigerators  should  in  no 
case  be  connected  direct  to  the  plumbing  system,  but  should  dis- 
charge in  the  same  manner  as  the  single  refrigerator,  as  described 
under  Plate  8.  All  changes  in  direction  and  all  offsets  on  the  refrig- 
erator waste  pipe  should  be  provided  with  full-size  cleanouts. 

Refrigerator  pipes  should  never  discharge  upon  the  cellar  floor 
or  bottom,  and  wherever  sewage  privileges  exist  they  should  not 
drip  onto  the  ground.  However,  if  necessary  to  discharge  upon  the 
ground,  such  discharge  should  not  take  place  within  three  feet  of 
the  foundation  walls,  unless  into  a  tight  gutter. 

Each  refrigerator  connecting  into  a  line  of  waste  pipe  should  be 
separately  trapped,  with  its  branch  waste  as  short  and  direct  as  pos- 
sible. The  main  line  should  be  carried  directly  through  the  roof,  and 
in  cold  climates  it  should  be  increased  to  4  in.  in  size  before  passing 
through  the  roof. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  smaller  sizes  often  close  up  at  their 
upper  ends  with  hoarfrost,  thus  stopping  ventilation,  which  in  the 
case  of  the  refrigerator  is  a  most  important  matter.  The  cellar  end 
of  the  refrigerator  line  should  be  provided  with  a  brass  flap  valve, 
in  order  that  the  upward  passage  of  cellar  air  and  odors  may  be 
prevented. 

The  use  of  the  flap  valve  and  the  cleanout  is  shown  in  Fig.  B. 

65 


66  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

BAR    SINKS— SODA-FOUNTAIN    SINKS 

The  bar  sink  or  the  soda-fountain  sink  may  be  installed,  if 
desired,  with  an  indirect  connection  to  the  drainage  system,  or  with 
direct  communication. 

When  an  indirect  connection  is  made  for  either  of  these  fixtures 
it  may  be  trapped  or  not,  as  preferred,  but  should  always  discharge 
into  a  fixture  or  pan  properly  trapped  and  located  as  close  to  the  bar 
sink  or  fountain  sink  as  possible. 


EXHAUSTS,    DRIPS,    AND    BLOW-OFFS    OF    STEAM 

BOILERS,    ETC. 

The  exhaust,  draw-off,  drip,  and  blow-off  from  a  steam  boiler 
should  never  connect  directly  into  any  sewer  or  into  any  part  of  the 
drainage  system.  These  pipes  should  discharge  into  a  tank  or  con- 
denser, the  capacity  of  which  should  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  boiler. 
The  tank  should  be  provided  with  a  vent  pipe  not  less  than  2  in.  in 
diameter,  connecting  with  the  outside  air.  The  tank  should  connect, 
through  a  waste  not  less  than  3  in.  in  diameter,  into  the  house  drain 
or  sewer,  preferably  the  latter.  The  waste  should  be  trapped  and 
vented  and  provided  with  a  back-pressure  valve.  The  reason  that 
this  class  of  drainage  should  not  discharge  directly  into  the  drainage 
system  or  sewer  is  that  the  steam  rising  from  it  produces  sewer 
pressure,  against  which  all  possible  precautions  should  be  taken. 
Water  over  120  degrees  in  temperature  should  not  be  discharged 
into  the  sewer,  owing  to  the  result  which  may  follow  in  the  forma- 
tion of  steam. 

The  drainage  from  hot-water  heating  systems  and  from  low- 
pressure  steam-heating  systems  may,  however,  be  connected  directly 
into  the  drainage  system,  if  properly  trapped,  without  entering  a 
condensing  tank. 

The  drainage  from  hydraulic  elevators,  lifts,  and  other  similar 
apparatus  which  is  direct  connected,  should  not  be  discharged  directly 
into  the  drainage  system,  but  should  first  enter  a  tank,  in  order  that 
it  may  be  discharged  from  that  point  into  the  sewer  without  pressure. 
Tanks  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  trapped  and  vented  and  pro- 
vided with  a  back-pressure  valve. 


Plate  X 

THE  STALL  SINK— HORSE  TROUGH 
FROST-PROOF    WATER    CLOSETS 


P/ohiz.  10 


C<=>nn^ct/<^ns    f'='r 

Hc>rsz    Stall 


K073/  S<scajQ)e 


o22  -^  <^ide^ 
^22c2^1izg 
f-<=>?y^a2?d    f23e 


Cle  oj^  '=>Lif 


^IGJZ    Vie 7T  'y   (S/aJJ  073 d  (S22Z2t 


THE    STALL    SINI> 


v 


In  modern  stables  much  attention  is  given  to  the  proper  drain- 
age of  horse  stalls.  Although  not  of  so  much  moment  when  stables 
are  located  at  a  distance  from  dwellings,  or  in  sparsely  settled  dis- 
tricts, the  horse  stalls  of  stables  that  are  located  in  sections  devoted 
to  residential  or  business  purposes  should  be  provided  for  in  the  same 
manner  as  any  other  plumbing  fixture.  This  applies  to  private  stables, 
livery  stables,  engine-house  stables,  etc. 

The  drainage  of  the  horse  stall  is  best  accomplished  by  the  use 
of  a  specially  constructed  cast-iron  stall  sink,  the  four  sides  of  which 
pitch  toward  the  center,  from  which  point  the  waste  is  carried  ofif. 
Below  the  sink  a  special  fitting  is  provided  which  bolts  to  the  sink 
and  caulks  into  the  cast-iron  waste  pipe.  The  waste  and  vent  should 
be  of  2-in.  cast-iron  pipe,  cast  iron  withstanding  the  action  of  the 
acids  in  the  waste  much  more  effectively  than  wrought  iron  or  steel. 

The  waste  line  should  enter  a  trap  located  as  close  to  the  stall 
as  convenient,  and  provided  with  two  2-in.  cleanouts. 

Two  cleanouts  may  be  used  by  taking  the  vent  from  a  tee  located 
next  beyond  the  trap,  instead  of  from  the  trap  itself,  as  shown  in 
Plate  lo.  The  use  of  cleanouts  wherever  possible  on  work  of  this 
nature,  is  a  necessity,  as  even  the  utmost  precaution  will  not  serve  to 
entirely  prevent  the  entrance  of  solid  matter  into  the  drain.  A  clean- 
out  at  the  end  of  the  horizontal  cast-iron  waste,  as  shown,  will  prove 
of  much  value. 

A  perforated  cover  is  provided  with  the  stall  sink,  its  purpose 
being  to  prevent  as  far  as  possible,  the  escape  of  solid  substances  into 
the  waste  pipe. 

The  stall  sink  should  be  set  well  toward  the  rear  of  the  stall,  as 
shown  in  the  plan  view,  in  order  to  best  serve  its  purpose. 

The  sink  should  be  covered  by  a  skeleton  trap  door,  through 
which  the  liquids  may  find  their  way  into  the  sink. 

Even  when  provided  with  these  drainage  facilities,  the  horse  stall 

soon  becomes  foul  smelling,  owing  to  the  foul  nature  of  the  solids 

and  liquids  deposited;  but  if  the  sink  is  thoroughly  flushed  out  with 

the  hose  each  day,  it  may  be  kept  in  a  comparatively  clean  condition. 

69 


70  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 


THE    HORSE    TROUGH 

The  plumbing  of  the  stable  is  not  complete  without  the  properly 
connected  horse  trough.  The  horse  trough  is  generally  made  of  cast 
iron,  and  may  be  provided  with  a  standing  overflow  to  guard  against 
the  overflowing  of  the  fixture. 

Its  waste  should  be  2  in.  in  size,  and  its  vent  1 3^  in.  The  drain- 
age pipes  of  stables  are  generally  of  cast  iron,  as  the  presence  of 
strong  acids  in  the  waste  soon  causes  wrought  iron  to  deteriorate. 


FROST-PROOF    WATER    CLOSETS 

Several  forms  of  water  closet  are  now  made,  designed  especially 
for  operation  in  places  exposed  to  extreme  cold,  such  as  unheated 
stables,  yards,  etc.  Water  closets  for  this  purpose  cannot  be  of  the 
ordinary  style,  that  is,  with  the  trap  combined  in  the  fixture,  as  the 
contents  of  the  trap  would  be  in  danger  of  freezing.  Therefore  long 
hoppers  are  generally  used  on  frost-proof  water  closets,  the  trap 
being  generally  of  cast  iron  and  located  below  the  closet  at  sufficient 
depth  to  avoid  danger  of  freezing.  Various  methods  are  employed 
in  providing  a  flush.  In  some  cases  the  flush  is  direct  connected, 
while  in  other  cases  galvanized  cylindrical  flush  tanks  are  used.  The 
flush  tank  is  sometimes  placed  in  a  pit  below  the  water  closet,  and 
sometimes  on  the  wall  above  it. 

In  the  latter  case  the  tank  fills  only  when  the  seat  is  occupied. 
When  the  seat  is  released,  a  heavy  weight  attached  to  it  opens  the 
flush  to  the  closet  and  empties  the  tank,  any  water  standing  in  the 
piping  draining  through  a  small  pipe  into  the  trap. 

When  the  tank  is  located  below  the  floor  it  remains  empty  except 
when  the  seat  is  occupied.  When  the  seat  is  pressed  down,  the  tank 
fills  with  water  to  whatever  extent  the  pressure  will  compress  the  air. 
When  the  seat  is  vacated  the  weight  attached  tips  the  seat  up,  closing 
the  inlet  to  the  tank,  opening  the  flush  to  the  closet,  and  the  com- 
pressed air  forces  the  flush  through  the  fixture.  When  frost-proof 
water  closets  are  located  in  cellars  or  basements  of  such  buildings  as 
factories,  warehouses,  and  other  buildings  occupied,  but  not  used  as 
dwellings,  they  should  be  vented  and  local  vented. 


Plate  XI 

CONNECTIONS    FOR    S-TRAPS— VENTING 


C^nnz.c.ti°ns 

f*=>r    'S    Traps 


Plahz  II. 


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CONNECTIONS    FOR    S-TRAPS— VENTING 

The  trap  and  its  vent  are  so  closely  allied  that  it  is  best  to  con- 
sider them  under  the  same  heading. 

The  trap  is  a  vessel  containing  a  body  of  water,  the  duty  of 
which  is  to  obstruct  and  prevent  the  entrance  of  sewer  air  and  gases 
into  the  house.  All  plumbing  ordinances  recognize  the  necessity  of 
a  trap  under  each  fixture,  and  upon  the  application  of  proper  prin- 
ciples in  its  construction,  installation,  and  venting,  a  large  part  of  the 
successful  operation  of  the  modern  system  of  plumbing  depends. 

A  trap  to  be  entirely  satisfactory  and  sanitary  should  possess  a 
good  seal,  be  self-scouring,  non-siphonable,  have  the  least  possible 
opportunity  for  the  collection  of  filth,  have  no  partitions  within  itself, 
and  depend  upon  no  mechanical  contrivance  to  make  a  seal. 

To  secure  all  these  features  in  the  same  trap  is  a  difficult  matter, 
but  the  claim  is  made  for  several  traps  now  on  the  market  that  they 
meet  these  requirements,  and  the  non-siphonable  requirement  having 
been  solved,  they  require  no  venting. 

If  an  absolutely  non-siphonable  trap  could  be  produced,  there 
would  be  no  need  of  the  venting  system,  and  the  cost  of  the  average 
plumbing  system  would  thereby  be  reduced  approximately  one-third. 

It  is  true  that  several  traps  have  been  introduced  which  have 
withstood  severe  siphonage  tests  remarkably  well.  A  very  important 
question  arises,  however,  as  to  what  results  these  traps  will  show 
after  they  have  been  in  service  for  a  time,  become  fouled  and  in 
other  ways  reached  the  trap's  normal  condition.  Some  few  plumb- 
ing ordinances  now  allow  the  use  of  these  so-called  non-siphonable 
traps  without  the  use  of  the  trap  vent.  The  vast  majority  of  ordi- 
nances, however,  still  adhere  to  the  venting  of  the  trap  as  a  safe- 
guard against  siphonage,  and  it  would  seem  at  the  present  time  a 
wise  stand  to  take. 

Before  considering  the  special  subject  of  S-traps,  it  will  be  well 
to  consider  some  of  the  general  features  of  the  trap  question. 

By  the  seal  of  the  trap  is  meant  the  depth  of  water  between  the 
outlet  of  the  trap  and  the  dip,  that  is,  the  depth  of  water  which  pre- 
vents the  entrance  of  gases  from  the  sewer. 

73 


74  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

A  safe  depth  of  seal  is  2  in. 

A  much  greater  depth  of  seal  might  be  secured  for  many  traps, 
but  the  argument  against  it  is  that  it  presents  a  larger  body  of  stag- 
nant waste  than  is  necessary.  A  small  seal  is  dangerous,  as  it  may 
more  easily  be  destroyed  by  evaporation.  Evaporation  is  a  great 
menace  to  the  trap  seals  of  fixtures  which  do  not  have  their  seals 
renewed  in  the  everyday  use  of  the  fixture;  and  the  conveyance  onto 
the  trap  seal  of  air  through  the  trap  vent  increases  the  evil. 

Internal  partitions  are  dangerous,  for  sewer  gas  may  pass  into 
the  house  through  defects  that  may  exist  in  the  partition  above  the 
water  line. 

Formerly  traps  with  mechanical  seals  were  much  in  use,  but  are 
now  generally  prohibited.  The  mechanical  device  employed  was 
usually  a  heavy  ball  or  float,  which  gave  opportunity  for  the  collec- 
tion of  grease  and  other  filth  about  itself,  resulting  in  the  stoppage 
of  the  trap. 

The  trap  seal  may  be  destroyed  by  back  pressure,  capillary 
attraction,  momentum,  evaporation,  and  siphonage. 

The  trap  seal  may  be  forced  by  back  pressure,  that  is,  the  pres- 
sure of  gases  generated  in  the  sewer. 

This  evil  has  been  practically  eliminated  by  carrying  the  vertical 
stacks  through  the  roof,  but  was  a  serious  matter  in  the  old-style 
system,  in  which  each  stack  ended  at  the  highest  fixture. 

The  action  of  capillary  attraction  takes  place  in  the  trap  when 
threads,  pieces  of  cloth,  etc.,  happen  to  dip  into  the  seal  and  extend 
over  into  the  outlet.  By  this  means,  a  drop  at  a  time,  the  seal  may 
be,  and  often  is,  broken.  There  is  no  remedy  that  can  be  applied  to 
this  evil,  for  its  existence  is  never  known.  A  trap  may  lose  its  seal 
by  momentum,  that  is,  in  flowing  out  of  the  trap,  the  rush  of  the 
waste  is  so  strong  that  it  may  carry  a  part  of  the  seal  with  it. 

This  is  the  tendency  in  some  traps  working  on  the  centrifugal 
principle.  In  these  traps  the  waste  inlet  and  outlet  are  on  a  tangent, 
resulting  in  a  whirling  motion  which  is  so  strong  as  to  endanger  the 
seal.  These  traps  have  great  scouring  qualities,  which  is  an  excellent 
feature. 

Occasionally  traps  on  top  floors  may  lose  a  part  of  their  seal  by  its 
being  blown  out  by  gusts  of  wind  passing  over  the  top  of  the  stack. 

Siphonage,  however,  is  the  worst  evil  which  the  trap  has  to  con- 
tend with.     For  the  purpose  of  the  consideration  of  the  action  of 


CONNECTIONS    FOR    S-TRAPS— VENTING  75 

siphonage  it  is  considered  that  the  trap  in  Fig.  A,  Plate  11,  is  with- 
out a  vent. 

In  that  case,  if  a  vacuum  or  partial  vacuum  were  formed  by  any 
means  in  the  lower  part  of  the  trap  outlet,  the  atmospheric  pressure 
exerted  on  the  house  side  of  the  trap  seal  would  force  the  contents 
out  of  the  trap  into  the  waste  pipe.  In  other  words,  the  contents 
would  be  sucked  out  of  the  trap.  If  conditions  are  such  that  a 
vacuum  is  produced  as  above,  the  only  way  in  which  siphonage  of 
the  trap  can  be  prevented  is  by  bringing  a  supply  of  air  into  the  trap 
at  or  near  its  crown. 

The  siphon  consists  primarily  of  a  bent  tube,  one  arm  being 
shorter  than  the  other.  After  the  vacuum  has  been  created,  and  both 
arms  filled  with  water,  the  action  continues  because  the  falling  of 
the  greater  weight  of  water  in  the  long  arm  exerts  a  suction  on  that 
in  the  short  arm.  If  the  two  arms  were  of  the  same  length,  the 
weight  of  each  would  balance  that  of  the  other,  and  the  result  would 
be  that  the  water  in  each  arm  would  fall  by  gravity,  at  once  empty- 
ing both  arms  of  the  siphon.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  trap  with 
its  outlet,  almost  always  represents  the  ideal  form  of  siphon,  for  the 
middle  leg  of  the  trap  is  short  and  under  atmospheric  pressure,  and 
the  outlet  is  generally  much  longer,  and  at  its  lower  end  often  subject 
to  influences  which  tend  to  produce  a  vacuum.  In  order,  then,  that 
the  entrance  of  air  may  break  the  siphonic  action,  the  air  must  be 
admitted  at  or  near  the  crown  of  the  trap.  That  there  are  many 
influences  in  the  plumbing  system  tending  to  produce  a  vacuum  may 
be  seen  in  the  text  under  Plate  36,  in  which  this  subject  is  taken  up 
more  extensively. 

The  vent  pipe  connected  at  the  crown  of  the  trap  is  the 
means  employed  to  prevent  trap  siphonage,  and  to  date  it  is  the 
only  practical  means.  Various  experiments  have  been  tried  to  pre- 
vent trap  siphonage  without  employing  an  expensive  vent  system, 
but  to  no  avail.  Having  now  covered  some  of  the  features  which 
apply  to  traps  in  general,  the  consideration  of  the  S-trap  will  be 
taken  up. 

This  trap  is  more  extensively  used  than  any  other  form  of  trap. 

The  S-trap  and  the  drum  trap  may  be  considered  as  the  funda- 
mental forms  of  traps,  all  other  traps  now  in  use  being  based  upon 
one  or  the  other  in  their  operation. 

Much  debate  has  arisen  as  to  the  relative  advantages  of  these 


76  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

two  forms  of  traps,  but  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  author  to  enter  into 
the  controversy.  Facts  concerning  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  each  will  be  given,  the  reader  reaching  his  own  conclusions  as  to 
which  is  the  more  perfect  trap. 

The  S-trap,  owing  to  its  form  and  to  the  fact  that  its  passage 
throughout  is  of  the  same  size,  possesses  excellent  self-scouring 
qualities,  a  most  desirable  feature  in  traps. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  other  trap  so  susceptible  to  the 
action  of  siphonage  as  the  S-trap,  and  it  would  be  very  unsafe  to 
install  this  trap  without  providing  it  with  a  vent.  Upon  the  proper 
application  of  the  vent  the  successful  operation  of  the  S-trap  largely 
depends.  The  greatest  difficulty  which  the  trap  vent  has  to  contend 
with  is  the  accumulation  of  grease,  hair,  lint,  etc.,  about  the  opening 
of  the  vent  into  the  trap. 

So  great  is  this  evil  that  it  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  in  a  very 
large  majority  of  instances  the  vents  of  traps  that  have  been  in  use 
for  a  number  of  years  are  undoubtedly  inoperative,  owing  to  com- 
plete stoppage  of  the  entrance  of  the  vent  into  the  trap. 

Patent  devices  to  prevent  this  have  failed.  Cleanouts  on  trap 
vents,  as  shown  in  Fig.  D,  are  seldom  used,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  existence  of  the  trouble  is  usually  unknown,  and  the  need  of  the 
remedy  therefore  not  appreciated. 

The  nearest  approach  to  a  vent  which  will  not  close  up  is  the 
connection  shown  in  Fig.  F,  in  which  the  vent  is  taken  from  the  top 
of  the  waste  fitting.  This  method  is  known  as  continuous  venting, 
and  is  of  such  acknowledged  excellence  that  it  is  taken  up  at  length 
under  Plates  26,  zy,  and  28. 

S-traps  are  made  in  three  styles,  the  full  S,  three-quarter  S,  and 
half  S. 

Tn  the  latter  two  forms  the  vent  may  be  taken  off  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  seal,  as  seen  in  Figs.  C  and  E.  Such  a  con- 
nection is  preferable  to  that  of  either  Fig.  A,  B,  or  D,  for  there  is 
not  so  great  a  tendency  to  throw  the  waste  up  into  the  vent  as  in 
the  three  connections  named. 

There  is  one  other  feature  which  makes  the  work  of  Fig.  C 
preferable  to  that  of  Figs.  A,  B,  and  D. 

Air  is  supplied  to  the  trap  seal  at  such  a  distance  from  it,  that 
the  rate  of  evaporation  will  be  materially  less  than  in  the  case  of  the 
other  three  connections. 


CONNECTIONS    FOR    S-TRAPS— VENTING 


77 


The  vents  in  Figs.  B  and  D  being  taken  off  further  from  the 
trap  seal  than  in  Fig.  A,  their  rate  of  evaporation  will  be  less. 

It  may  be  stated,  however,  that  the  connection  shown  in  Fig.  A 
is  the  one  most  commonly  in  use.  Although  evaporation  is  not  so 
dangerous  a  factor  as  siphonage  in  connection  with  traps,  it  is  much 
more  to  be  feared  than  would  appear  at  first  thought. 

This  is  particularly  true  of  traps  under  fixtures  which  are  sel- 
dom used,  or  traps  of  fixtures  in  houses  that  are  vacant,  as  is  often 
the  case  during  the  summer  season. 

The  S-trap,  when  used  to  serve  the  bath  tub,  is  often  found  very 
inaccessible  when  it  is  desired  to  clear  it  of  stoppage,  for  the  trap 
screw,  so  convenient  in  most  positions,  is  in  this  case  very  difficult 
to  get  at. 

Flooring  must  usually  be  taken  up  to  get  at  the  cleanout. 

In  Fig.  E  is  shown  a  very  desirable  method  of  providing  a  clean- 
out  for  the  bath  trap.  The  cleanout  being  brought  flush  with  the 
floor,  any  stoppage  may  be  removed  without  taking  up  the  flooring. 

The  sizes  of  traps  are,  viz. : 


Traps  for  water  closets,  4 

slop  sinks,  3 
kitchen  sinks,  i^  or  2 

laundry  tubs,  i^^^ 

bath  tubs,  i^ 

urinals,  i^ 

lavatories,  1^4 

other  fixtures,  i>4 


in.  diameter. 


Every  trap  should  be  provided  with  a  cleanout  on  its  inlet  side 
or  below  the  water  level  in  the  trap,  and  the  overflow  from  each  fix- 
ture should  be  connected  on  the  inlet  side  of  the  trap.  Through 
carelessness  and  ignorance  the  overflow  is  sometimes  found  connected 
to  the  sewer  side  of  the  trap,  thereby  forming  a  by-pass  through 
which  gases  and  odors  from  the  drainage  and  sewer  system  may 
enter  the  house.  The  trap  should  always  be  set  level  with  respect 
to  its  water  seal.  Otherwise  the  available  depth  of  seal  will  be 
lessened,  and  the  seal  possibly  entirely  lost. 

Traps  located  under  floors  should  have  cleanouts  accessible  from 
above  the  trap,  except  in  cases  where  the  trap  is  accessible  from  the 


78  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

floor  below,  owing  to  the  form  of  floor  construction,  as,  for  instance, 
in  factory  work.  The  waste  from  a  fixture  should  never  pass  through 
more  than  one  trap  before  entering  the  house  drain.  The  effect  of 
passing  waste  through  two  traps  is  to  cause  air-lock  between  the  two 
traps,  which  impedes  the  natural  flow  of  the  waste  and  results  finally 
in  a  stoppage  of  the  waste. 


Plate  XII 

CONNECTIONS     FOR     DRUM     TRAPS- 
PRACTICAL   REQUIREMENTS    OF    VExNTING 


C<=>nr}e>chi^ns 


P/af-iz  /Z 


f^r  Drum    Traps 


R>i 


r^ 


r\ 


rf9  A 


F'9B 


1 


i«i 


i:^ 


F^9  D. 


F^ 


I  r 

I     I 
I     I 

_J 


r^'g.  £:. 


KP\ 


^^ 


ng-  G. 


ng.  H 


ng  ^      U 


^^ 


I   I 

i  I 
I  I 
LJ 


r 


? 


CONNECTIONS    FOR    DRUM    TRAPS 

The  drum  trap  for  general  fixture  use  is  4  in.  in  diameter,  and 
into  it  are  wiped  the  inlet  and  outlet  waste  pipes.  The  trap,  then, 
represents  an  enlargement  in  the  waste  from  a  pipe  of  i^,  ly^,  or 
2-in.  diameter  to  4  in.,  and  under  this  condition  it  cannot  be  expected 
that  the  drum  trap  will  possess  the  scouring  qualities  to  be  found  in 
the  S-trap.  The  drum  trap,  however,  certainly  possesses  one  very 
strong  point.  While  the  S-trap  is  the  trap  most  easily  siphoned,  the 
drum  trap  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  siphon.  In  fact,  under  any 
ordinary  working  conditions  the  drum  trap  is  practically  non-siphon- 
able.  Special  tests  of  great  severity  have  shown  that  at  least  a  part 
of  its  seal  may  be  siphoned,  but  these  tests  subject  the  trap  to  con- 
ditions far  more  severe  than  they  encounter  when  installed  on  the 
plumbing  system.  The  strong  point  of  the  drum  trap  is  that,  unlike 
the  S-trap,  it  holds  a  large  body  of  water,  and  when  subjected  to 
siphonic  influence,  such  action  takes  place  through  a  passage  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  waste  pipe,  allowing  the  remaining  body  of 
water  to  fall  back  and  form  the  seal. 

While  acknowledging  that  the  drum  trap  is  far  less  subject  to 
siphonage  than  the  S-trap,  it  should  be  vented,  in  order  that  every 
possible  precaution  may  be  taken  to  eliminate  this  danger  and  to  give 
the  entire  system  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  thorough  ventilation. 

It  would  seem  a  poor  policy  to  maintain  a  radical  stand  against 
the  use  or  in  favor  of  either  the  S-  or  the  drum  trap.  A  better  course 
is  to  select  the  form  of  trap  to  be  used  after  considering  the  nature 
of  the  fixture  which  it  is  to  serve,  and  the  special  conditions  under 
which  the  plumbing  system  acts. 

For  instance,  in  country  districts,  where  venting  is  not  always 
used,  it  would  appear  to  be  good  practice  to  make  free  use  of  the 
drum  trap.  Wherever  the  continuous  vent  can  be  applied  to  the  trap, 
however,  the  use  of  the  S-trap  will  give  excellent  results. 

The  drum  trap  is  of  special  value  in  serving  the  bath  tub,  as  it 
may  be  easily  cleaned,  and  very  often  a  better  pitch  can  be  secured 
for  the  outlet  pipe  than  in  the  use  of  the  S-trap.     It  is  also  well 


82  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

adapted  to  the  laundry  tubs,  as  it  will  easily  receive  the  inlets  from 
the  several  compartments,  and  may  be  placed  in  a. more  advan- 
tageous position  than  the  S-trap,  often  avoiding  a  long  line  of  hori- 
zontal vi^aste  extending  from  the  farthest  section  to  the  S-trap.  The 
drum  trap  is  often  used  to  serve  two  or  more  fixtures,  but  this  is  a 
practice  which  should  not  be  followed,  as  each  fixture  should  have  its 
own  separate  trap. 

Connections  to  the  drum  trap  may  be  made  in  a  great  variety 
of  ways,  several  of  the  more  common  connections  being  shown  in 
Plate  12. 

The  connections  of  Fig.  A  are  no  doubt  the  most  common,  but 
the  trap  so  installed  is  open  to  an  evil  which  is  not  often  considered. 
The  trap  screw  is  made  tight  by  means  of  a  rubber  or  leather 
gasket,  and  unless  this  joint  is  perfectly  tight,  direct  communication 
with  the  sewer  will  exist.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  open  this  clean- 
out  after  the  gasket  has  been  in  use  for  some  time  without  destroy- 
ing it,  and  a  defective  joint  is  very  liable  to  be  left.  There  are  a 
number  of  ways  in  which  this  danger  may  be  avoided.  Fig.  G  shows 
a  method  of  using  the  drum  trap  so  that  any  defect  in  the  cleanout 
gasket  will  at  once  be  made  apparent  by  leakage  from  the  trap.  The 
cleanout  may  be  placed  at  the  bottom  or  on  the  side,  as  shown  by 
dotted  lines.  In  either  case  it  is  not  only  submerged,  but  allows  the 
trap  to  be  cleaned  to  better  advantage.  Many  ordinances  now  require 
the  cleanouts  of  fixture  traps  to  be  submerged. 

Fig.  B  shows  a  trap  which  is  well  guarded,  having  its  outlet 
submerged,  in  which  case,  when  the  trap  screw  is  removed,  there  is 
no  direct  communication. 

This  method  of  connection,  however,  is  open  to  a  serious  ob- 
jection. By  taking  the  outlet  from  the  bottom  of  the  trap,  where  the 
heavy  parts  of  the  sewage  collect,  and  thereby  making  the  outlet 
pipe  form  the  trap,  there  is  much  greater  liability  of  stoppage. 

In  Fig.  C  the  outlet  ends  inside  the  trap,  dipping  down  into  the 
seal,  and  thereby  preventing  direct  communication  with  the  sewer 
when  the  trap  screw  is  removed.  Although  gaining  this  point,  the 
part  of  the  outlet  inside  the  trap  forms  an  obstruction,  and  there  is 
opportunity  for  the  collection  of  grease,  etc.,  around  it.  The  interior 
of  the  trap  should  always  be  free  from  any  obstruction. 

Fig.  D  shows  a  trap  in  which  the  vent  is  connected  through  the 
cleanout  cover.     Many  ordinances  prohibit  a  vent  connection  of  this 


CONNECTIONS    FOR    DRUM    TRAPS  83 

kind  on  the  ground  that  no  vent  connection  should  be  made  by  means 
of  a  union  and  gasket. 

There  is  still  another  objection  to  this  form  of  vent  connection. 

All  traps  sooner  or  later  have  to  be  opened  and  cleaned  out,  and 
in  this  case  to  remove  the  cleanout  the  vent  must  be  bent  around  out 
of  the  way,  which  is  not  only  an  annoyance  but  harmful  to  the  vent. 

In  Figs.  E  and  F  the  outlet  pipe  is  shown  dipping  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  trap.  This  is  done  to  prevent  direct  communication 
when  the  cleanout  cover  is  removed,  but  is  a  bad  practice,  for  two 
reasons.  In  the  first  place,  it  takes  up  space  in  the  trap,  and  forms 
an  obstruction  around  which  collections  of  foul  matter  may  form. 
In  the  second  place,  either  of  these  two  forms  of  trap  is  very  much 
more  liable  to  siphonage  than  would  be  the  traps  in  Figs.  A  and  B, 
for  the  inlet  and  outlet  openings  are  close  enough  together  to  prac- 
tically form  an  S-trap,  which  is  very  susceptible  to  siphonage. 

Fig.  H  shows  a  trap  which  is  compact  in  the  manner  in  which 
its  connections  are  made,  but  which  has  the  same  fault  that  is  found 
in  Figs.  C,  E,  and  F. 

This  trap  will  siphon  more  readily  than  when  connected  as  in 
Figs.  A  and  B. 

Fig.  K  shows  a  trap  provided  with  a  continuous  vent,  that  is,  a 
connection  so  made  that  the  vent  may  be  taken  off  the  waste  fitting. 
As  stated  in  connection  with  S-traps,  this  method  is  an  excellent  one. 

It  is  taken  up  thoroughly  under  Plates  26,  27,  and  28. 

In  the  case  of  Fig.  K,  the  fault  is  the  same  as  in  Fig.  A,  that  is, 
there  will  be  direct  communication  with  the  sewer  whenever  the 
cover  is  removed.  The  same  trap  reversed,  however,  so  that  its 
cleanout  is  submerged,  overcomes  this  objection. 

Therefore,  in  summing  up,  it  would  seem  that  the  trap  shown  in 
Fig.  G,  connected  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  K,  would  present  the  drum 
trap  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  possible. 

PRACTICAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    VENTING 

The  matter  of  venting  appears  in  the  plumbing  system  in  sev- 
eral ways.  In  the  first  place  there  is  the  soil  or  waste  vent  through 
the  roof,  the  main  lines  of  vent  into  which  the  individual  trap  vents 
connect,  the  trap  vents  themselves,  the  fresh-air  inlet,  and  the  local 
vents  of  water  closets,  urinals,  and  slop  sinks.     Local  vents  and  the 


84  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

fresh-air  inlet  have  no  connection  with  the  system  of  trap  vents,  and 
will  not  be  touched  upon  under  this  plate.  The  soil  and  waste  vents, 
main  vent  lines,  and  trap  vents  are  closely  allied,  however. 

One  of  the  chief  steps  toward  the  improvement  of  the  plumbing 
system  was  taken  when  soil  and  waste  stacks  were  carried  through 
the  roof  instead  of  being  allowed  to  end  at  the  connection  of  the  top 
fixture.  Even  without  the  use  of  trap  vents  the  roof  vent  was  of 
great  benefit,  as  it  was  often  the  means  of  preventing  the  creation  of 
siphonic  conditions,  which  meant  the  siphonage  of  the  unvented  traps. 

In  addition,  it  proved  a  successful  remedy  for  back  pressure 
from  the  sewer,  as  the  latter  could  not  force  the  seals  of  traps,  for 
the  reason  that  the  roof  vents  relieved  any  such  pressure. 

It  is  generally  through  the  soil  or  waste  vent  that  air  is  brought 
into  the  main  vent  lines  of  the  plumbing  system,  which  in  turn 
deliver  the  air  to  the  traps  through  their  separate  vents. 

The  trap  vent  should  be  as  direct  in  its  course  from  the  trap  to 
the  main  vent  line  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  passage  of  air  may 
be  secured  with  as  great  an  amount  of  freedom  as  possible. 

Each  fixture  vent  or  trap  vent  should  incline  upward  through- 
out its  course,  in  order  that  any  condensation  forming  in  it  may  be 
conducted  back  into  the  trap.  The  trap  vent  should  in  all  cases  enter 
the  main  line  of  vent  above  the  fixture  which  it  serves.  When  the 
vent  is  thus  properly  connected,  and  a  stoppage  occurs  in  the  trap 
or  the  fixture  waste,  the  waste  from  the  fixture  will  back  up  into 
the  fixture,  thus  giving  warning  of  the  trouble  that  exists.  If  the 
vent  pipe  is  connected  below  the  fixture,  however,  the  waste  in 
the  event  of  such  a  stoppage  will  not  back  up  into  the  fixture,  but 
will  flow  off  through  the  fixture  vent  into  the  main  vent  line,  and 
thence  into  the  drainage  system,  thus  defeating  the  purpose  of  the 
vent  system,  and  making  of  the  trap  vent  and  main  vent  a  waste 
pipe  for  the  fixture. 

Each  fixture  trap  should  be  separately  vented,  but  vents  from 
several  fixtures  may  be  connected  into  a  single  branch  vent,  provided 
this  branch  runs  above  the  highest  fixture  of  the  group. 


Plate  XIII 

SOIL    PIPE    AND    SOIL    PIPE    CONNECTIONS 


S^/f  Pipe 


R/a/-(Z  13, 


Ver/-2coI 


2^  '='^2 J  ^2^ 

Js>i2:ze 


\72§027S 

Q7J3r<=>ug2^ 


f<A 


X\\^^t/' 


11Z022Z 


r^9-  ^■ 


Q^lojzge 


IizcreocSe 


F'ig.  B. 


r^n 


J7S022S 
2T3022Z 

'SfocJt 


L_J  jQ>r02  23 

rig  D. 


278  o  2  IB  (SfocJt 


Qy2x/u2^e 


17^0225    'l         / 

Stac2^XZ\ 

rig  r 


^ 


Q 


Fig  €. 


n 


SOIL    PIPE    AND    SOIL    PIPE    CONNECTIONS 

Properly,  soil  pipe  is  any  pipe  through  which  the  waste  from 
a  water  closet  passes,  and  waste  pipe  is  any  pipe  receiving  waste 
from  any  fixture  or  group  of  fixtures  other  than  the  water  closet. 
The  term  soil  pipe  is  often  used  to  designate  cast-iron  pipe  of  any 
size  and  for  any  purpose  in  connection  with  the  plumbing  system. 

The  latter  is  the  sense  in  which  it  will  be  referred  to  in  the  con- 
sideration of  the  present  subject. 

Soil  pipe  is  of  two  weights,  "  Standard/'  and  extra  heavy,  the 
latter  being  far  preferable  in  general,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  may 
be  cast  more  evenly,  with  fewer  defects,  sand  holes  and  cracks,  and 
that  it  may  be  cut  and  caulked  with  less  liability  of  cracking  pipe 
and  fittings. 


WEIGHTS    PER    FOOT    OF    CAST-IRON    PIPE 


Diameter 

Extra  Heavy 

Standard 

Diameter 

Extra  Heavy 

Standard 

2  in.  .  .  . 

5/2  lbs. 

3/  lbs. 

6    in ...  . 

20       lbs. 

10  lbs. 

3  in 

93^  lbs. 

4>^   lbs. 

7  in.... 

27       lbs. 

4  in ...  . 

13       lbs. 

61^  lbs. 

8  in 

33/  lbs. 

5  in.... 

17       lbs. 

8       lbs. 

10  in. . .  . 

45       lbs. 

It  is  sometimes  required  by  plumbing  ordinances  to  use  soil  pipe 
that  is  plain  and  uncoated,  it  being  usually  coated  inside  and  outside 
with  asphaltum  or  tar.  The  coating  often  covers  defects,  which  in 
the  uncoated  pipe  would  appear  and  be  remedied.  If  plain  pipe  is 
used  it  should  be  coated  after  being  tested.  The  joints  on  cast-iron 
soil  pipe  should  be  made  of  molten  soft  lead  poured  onto  a  firm  body 
of  caulked  oakum,  the  lead  being  caulked  even  with  the  top  of  the  hub. 

The  approximate  weights  of  lead  necessary  for  each  joint 
are,  viz. : 

87 


S8 


MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 


2-in.  caulked  joint i   lb.  8  oz. 

3-in.         "  "     

4-m.        "  "    

5-m.        "  "    

6-m.        "  "    


7-in. 

8-in. 

lo-in. 


2      ' 

'    4 

3    ' 

0    ' 
0 

'  12 

4    ' 

'    8 

5    ' 

'    4 

6    ' 

7    ' 

'    8 

It  is  generally  unsatisfactor}^  to  give  such  a  table  as  the  above, 
of  the  amount  of  lead  necessary  for  caulked  joints  of  different  size, 
as  one  workman  may  use  much  more  oakum  than  another,  and  a 
correspondingly  less  amount  of  lead.  Therefore  it  will  no  doubt  be 
found  that  the  table  published  will  not  agree  always  with  the  prac- 
tice of  different  workmen.  There  is  a  rule,  sometimes  used  in  esti- 
mating the  amount  of  caulking  lead,  calling  for  one  pound  of  lead 
for  each  inch  in  size  of  the  respective  joints ;  thus,  3  lbs.  for  a  3-in. 
joint,  4  lbs.  for  a  4-in.  joint,  etc.  In  estimating  the  total  amount  of 
lead  to  be  used  on  the  cast-iron  piping,  it  is  necessary  simply  to  esti- 
mate the  number  of  hubs  on  fittings  of  different  sizes,  and  the  num- 
ber of  lengths  of  pipe  of  different  sizes,  adding  the  amounts  of  each 
size  together  and  multiplying  b}^  the  weight  of  lead  used  per  joint. 

Thus  a  Y  or  tee  would  call  for  two  joints,  the  third  joint  on  the 
spigot  end,  being  estimated  on  the  straight  pipe. 

An  allowance  for  waste,  shrinkage,  and  extra  fittings,  should 
always  be  added  to  the  estimated  amount  of  lead. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  make  a  rust  joint  on  soil  pipe.  This 
should  be  done  by  caulking  into  the  hub  a  ring  of  oakum,  and  filling 
the  remaining  space  with  a  putty  made  by  mixing  together  sulphur, 
iron  filings,  and  sal  ammoniac. 

Connections  between  cast-iron  pipe  and  lead  pipe  should  be 
made  by  connecting  the  lead  pipe  to  a  brass  ferrtile  by  means  of  a 
wiped  solder  joint,  the  ferrule  being  caulked  into  the  cast-iron  hub. 

Overcast  and  cup  joints  are  often  weak  and  imperfect,  and 
should  not  be  used. 

Connections  between  cast-iron  pipe  and  wrought-iron  or  brass 
pipes  should  be  made  by  means  of  a  caulked  or  screw  joint.  All 
horizontal  soil  pipes,  whether  for  drainage  or  venting,  should,  when 
possible,  have  a  uniform  fall  of  y^  in.  to  the  foot,  but  never  less  than 


SOIL    PIPE    AND    SOIL    PIPE    CONNECTIONS         89 

54  in.  to  the  foot.  A  less  amount  of  pitch  brings  the  pipe  nearly 
level,  and  stoppage  and  sluggish  flow  of  waste  is  liable  to  result. 
A  grade  on  vent  pipes  is  necessary  in  order  that  condensation  may 
be  carried  off. 

All  changes  in  direction  of  soil  pipe  used  on  the  drainage  system 
should  be  made  by  means  of  Y-branches  and  sixth,  eighth,  or  six- 
teenth bends. 

This  connection  is  shown  in  Fig.  A,  Plate  13,  and  applies  whether 
the  change  in  direction  is  made  vertically  or  horizontally.  A  clean- 
out  should  always  be  used  in  the  end  of  the  Y  in  order  to  control 
that  section  of  the  piping.  The  change  in  direction  made  in  Fig.  B 
is  entirely  wrong,  the  quarter  bend  not  being  permissible  on  any  part 
of  the  drainage  system. 

It  is  allowed,  however,  on  the  fresh-air  inlet,  vent  lines,  rain 
leaders,  and  floor  and  yard  drains. 

The  tee  should  not  be  used  on  any  part  of  the  drainage  system; 
the  T-Y  being  allowed  on  vertical  lines  when  it  is  impossible  to  use 
the  Y-branch,  but  not  being  allowed  on  the  horizontal  piping. 

The  object  in  restricting  the  use  of  these  fittings  on  the  drainage 
system  is  to  secure  for  the  waste  flowing  through  the  drainage  sys- 
tem as  natural  and  unimpeded  a  passage  as  possible. 

Double  hubs  should  not  be  used  on  the  drainage  piping,  as  in 
their  use  a  rough  end  of  pipe  is  always  exposed  where  the  pipe  was 
cut  off,  and  on  this  end,  lint,  paper,  etc.,  in  the  sewage  is  liable  to  be 
caught. 

The  use  of  double-hub  pipe  will  often  avoid  the  use  of  double  hubs. 

The  double  T-Y  is  another  fitting  which  should  not  be  used  on 
horizontal  work,  as  the  waste  entering  one  side  of  the  fitting  will 
cross  and  enter  the  branch  on  the  other  side,  instead  of  entering  the 
main  line  only. 

Vertical  stacks  should  be  straight  whenever  possible,  but  when 
offsets  are  necessary  they  should  be  made  with  45-degree  fittings. 

Any  building  in  which  plumbing  fixtures  of  any  description 
are  installed  should  have  at  least  one  stack  extending  through 
the  roof. 

Whenever  a  vertical  line  receives  waste  from  a  fixture  on  any 
floor,  it  should  extend  through  the  roof,  if  10  ft.  or  more  from  the 
nearest  stack. 

The  following  sizes  of  soil  and  waste  pipes  should  be  followed: 


90  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

Each  soil  pipe  should  be  at  least 4  in. 

Main  soil  pipes  for  water  closets  on  two,  three,  or  four  floors.  4  " 

Main  soil  pipe  for  w^ater  closets  on  five  or  more  floors 5  " 

Main  soil  pipe  for  tenement  houses  of  more  than  three  stories .  .  5  " 

Branch  soil  pipes 4  " 

Main  waste  pipe  for  kitchen  sink 2  " 

Main  waste  pipe  for  sinks,  lavatories,  or  laundry  tubs  on  five 

or  more  floors   2  " 

Main  waste  pipe  for  six  or  more  fixtures,  not  less  than 3  " 

The  following-  sizes  for  main  vent  lines  should  be  followed: 

Main  vent  for  4-in.  soil-pipe  line 2  in. 

Long  branch  vent  lines   2    " 

Main  vent  for  stack  serving  sink,  laundry  tubs,  and  lavatories .  2    " 

Main  vent  for  line  of  water  closets  on  three  or  more  floors ....  3    " 

Main  vents  for  tenement  houses  of  more  than  three  floors ....  3    " 

Additional  main-vent  sizes  will  be  found  under  Plate  36. 

The  main  vent  line  may  be  run  independently  through  the  roof, 
or  it  may  be  reconnected  to  the  main  soil  or  waste  pipe  above  the 
highest  fixture  vent.  The  latter  connection  is  shown  in  Fig.  C,  Plate 
13,  and  it  has  certain  advantages  over  the  independent  roof  connec- 
tion. In  the  first  place,  it  saves  cutting  an  extra  hole  through  the 
roof,  and  the  smaller  the  number  of  pipes  passing  through  the  roof 
the  less  will  be  the  danger  of  leakage,  and  the  less  unsightly  will  the 
roof  appear.  In  addition,  the  circulation  of  air  through  the  vent  sys- 
tem will  be  better,  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  warmer  air  of  the 
main  stack  in  keeping  the  air  in  motion. 

This  connection  may  be  made  into  the  vent  fitting  shown  in 
Fig.  C,  into  an  inverted  Y-branch,  and  in  the  use  of  wrought-iron 
main  vent  by  means  of  a  tapped  fitting  on  the  main  stack.  When  the 
pipe  is  to  be  increased  through  the  roof,  the  vent  line  may  enter  the 
main  stack  through  an  increaser,  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  F,  provided 
with  a  side  hub  or  tapping.  The  lower  end  of  the  main  vent  should 
be  reconnected  to  the  main  stack,  as  shown  in  Fig.  D. 

This  connection  allows  all  condensation  and  collection  of  rust 
and  scale  to  be  carried  ofT  into  the  drainage  system,  and  in  addition, 
it  gives  rigidity  to  the  work,  the  danger  from  leakage  due  to  acci- 
dental blows,  settling,  shrinkage,  etc.,  being  largely  eliminated. 


SOIL    PIPE    AND    SOIL    PIPE    CONNECTIONS         91 

Fig.  E  shows  a  very  common  but  undesirable  method  of  con- 
necting the  lower  end  of  the  main  vent  to  the  fixture  vent  of  the 
lowest  fixture. 

It  will  be  plainly  seen  that  all  scale  falling  through  the  main 
vent  will  collect  in  the  bend  at  the  foot  of  the  line,  and  such  collec- 
tions of  rust  and  scale  often  present  a  serious  difficulty. 

In  Fig.  F  is  shown  a  common  method  of  making  the  roof  connec- 
tion. Some  plumbing  ordinances  require  a  2-in.  stack  to  be  increased 
to  3  in.  in  passing  through  the  roof,  and  a  3-in.  stack  increased  to 
4  in.,  that  is,  each  pipe  less  than  4  in.  in  size  shall  be  increased  one 
inch  in  size. 

Most  ordinances,  however,  allow  no  pipe  of  less  size  than  4  in. 
to  pass  through  the  roof.  The  latter  is  the  preferable  method^  for 
the  reason  that  2  and  3  in.  and  smaller  sizes  of  pipe  will  sometimes 
entirely  close  up  with  hoar  frost  formed  about  the  opening  above  the 
roof,  this  accumulation  being  produced  from  the  steam  rising  through 
the  stack.  In  increasing  the  size  of  pipe,  long  increasers,  such  as 
shown  in  Fig.  F,  should  be  vised,  and  the  increaser  located  not  less 
than  one  foot  below  the  roof. 

Caps  or  cowls  should  not  be  used  to  cover  roof  pipes.  In  the 
case  of  roof  pipes  6f  tenement  houses  whose  roofs  are  used  by  the 
inmates,  the  openings  should  be  protected  by  the  use  of  a  wire  basket, 
but  under  other  conditions  it  is  preferable  to  keep  the  opening  entirely 
free,  as  even  the  wire  basket  gives  opportunity  for  the  collection 
of  frost. 

The  roof  pipe  should  extend  two  feet  above  the  roof.  When- 
ever the  roof  is  used  by  the  inmates,  all  pipes  passing  through  it 
should  be  carried  up  at  least  6  ft.  above  the  roof.  Roof  pipes  should 
terminate  not  less  than  3  ft.  above  any  window,  door,  or  air  shaft 
that  may  be  within  a  distance  of  12  ft.,  and  such  pipes  should  not 
terminate  within  6  ft.  of  any  chimney  or  flue. 

When  carried  above  the  roof,  pipes  should  be  securely  stayed 
to  the  roof.  Many  styles  of  roof  flanges  are  in  use,  the  most  com- 
mon probably  being  that  of  Fig.  F,  in  which  the  hub  is  riveted  to  a 
flange  of  sheet  copper,  which  may  be  slipped  under  the  slate  or 
shingles  above  the  pipe,  and  over  them  below  it.  Adjustable  roof 
flanges  will  fit  a  roof  of  any  pitch.  A  very  desirable  form  is  one  in 
the  use  of  which  the  plumber  is  not  required  to  go  onto  the  roof  to 
pour  the  lead  joint. 


92  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

A  change  has  in  recent  years  come  about  in  the  use  of  materials 
on  the  drainage  and  vent  systems  of  the  plumbing  system.  Years 
ago  all  piping  of  the  plumbing  system  was  of  lead.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  use  of  cast  iron  on  both  main  drainage  lines  and  vent 
lines,  with  branch  wastes  and  vents  of  lead. 

Although  much  cast  iron  is  still  used  on  main  vent  lines,  a  large 
part  of  the  main  vents  of  modern  plumbing  systems  are  now  con- 
structed of  wrought-iron  pipe,  and  the  branch  vents  as  well,  until  at 
the  present  time  a  large  majority  of  trap  vents  are  of  wrought  iron, 
excepting  in  certain  sections  of  the  country  that  still  adhere  to  lead 
work. 

The  present  tendency,  especially  on  large  work  in  the  large 
cities,  is  toward  the  use  of  wrought  iron  and  brass  for  fixture  wastes, 
and  a  very  excellent  feature  to  be  noted  in  their  use  is  that  cleanouts 
at  bends  may  be  used,  whereas  this  was  not  done  in  the  use  of  lead 
wastes.  The  use  of  brass  pipe  for  drainage  purposes  is  excellent 
practice,  but  the  cost  of  brass  pipe  is  so  great  that,  excepting  on  the 
higher  grades  of  work,  its  use  is  limited. 


Plate  XIV 

SUPPORTING  AND  RUNNING  OF  SOIL  PIPE 


Supp orf'in g    of 

So//  R/pe. 


P/a/e  14. 


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SUPPORTING   AND    RUNNING    OF    SOIL    PIPE 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  the  running  and  support- 
ing of  soil  pipes.  They  are  generally  made  tight  by  caulked  lead 
joints,  which  are  easily  made  defective  when  moved  in  any  way, 
owing  to  the  great  weight  and  leverage  of  the  pipe.  Few  plumbing 
systems  that  have  been  in  use  for  a  number  of  years  would  show 
perfect  joints  under  test,  and  in  many  cases  this  condition  is  due  to 
imperfect  supporting  of  the  pipe. 

When  a  vertical  line  drops  to  the  cellar  bottom,  it  should  rest 
upon  a  thick  flagging  or  upon  a  brick  or  stone  foundation,  as  in  Fig.  E. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  building  such  a  pier  during  the  winter 
season  that  there  is  no  frost  beneath  it,  which  would  allow  the  pier 
and  stack  to  settle  when  it  thawed. 

Brick  or  stone  piers  should  also  support  a  horizontal  line  run- 
ning above  the  cellar  bottom,  particularly  at  points  where  vertical 
stacks  enter  it.  The  use  of  piers  to  support  horizontal  lines  running 
below  the  cellar  timbers  is  preferable  to  long  hangers,  as  in  the  use 
of  the  latter  the  pipe  would  be  inclined  to  swing  if  subjected  to  side 
pressure. 

There  are  now  on  the  market  pipe-supporting  fittings,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  G,  which  can  be  made  to  support  piping  running  at  any  given 
grade.  When  there  is  no  firm  cement  cellar  bottom,  these  support- 
ing fittings  should  rest  on  wide  flaggings. 

Equal  care  should  be  used  on  overhead  piping,  some  ordinances 
calling  for  overhead  running  of  all  pipes. 

In  supporting  overhead  pipes,  hangers  of  the  pattern  shown  in 
Fig.  A  should  be  used,  and  the  pipe  should  be  supported  once  in  each 
five  feet.  Some  ordinances  call  for  a  support  in  each  ten  feet,  but 
the  above  provision  is  better. 

Fig.  D  shows  a  practice,  generally  prohibited,  of  using  hooks 
for  the  supporting  of  pipe. 

The  hanger  is  firmly  supported  at  each  end,  the  pipe  resting 
between  the  two  supporting  points;  in  the  use  of  pipe  hooks,  how- 
ever, the  weight  of  the  pipe,  owing  to  the  form  of  the  support,  will 

95 


96  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

cause  it  to  sag,  and  though  the  sag  may  often  be  very  shght,  it  will 
generally  be  sufficient  to  cause  defective  joints. 

All  vertical  lines  of  soil  pipe  should  be  supported  at  each  floor 
by  iron  bands  placed  just  below  the  hub  or  under  the  branch  of  a 
fitting. 

These  bands  are  made  of  flat  wrought  iron,  and  should  have  the 
strength  of  5^-in.  round  iron,  and  should  be  securely  fastened  to  the 
timiber  with  screws. 

The  support  should  be  made  on  a  vertical  timber  if  possible,  as 
the  danger  of  settling  or  sagging  of  a  horizontal  timber  is  greater. 

A  practice  sometimes  followed  is  to  cut  the  pipe  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  it  supports  itself  on  a  hub  at  each  floor,  as  shown  in  Fig.  C. 

For  hangers  for  2-  and  3-in.  soil  pipe,  3/8-in.  wrought-iron  rod 
should  be  used;  and  J/2-in.  rod  for  4-  and  5-in.  pipe. 

That  there  is  great  need  of  every  precaution  in  running  and 
supporting  soil  pipe  may  be  seen  when  it  is  considered  that  a  4-in. 
stack  in  almost  any  ordinary  residence  or  dwelling  will  weigh  at 
least  550  lbs.,  without  taking  into  account  any  branches  or  fittings, 
and  pipe  of  larger  size  will  weigh  very  much  more. 

Furthermore,  when  the  entire  system  is  filled  with  water  during 
the  water  test,  this  weight  is  raised  to  a  much  higher  amount. 

Stacks  passing  through  the  roof  and  carried  several  feet  above 
it  in  order  that  their  upper  ends  may  be  above  all  roof  openings  or 
above  adjoining  windows,  should  be  given  special  support,  as  the 
pressure  of  the  wind  against  them  is  at  times  very  strong. 

When  roofs  of  tenement  houses  are  occupied  and  used  by  ten- 
ants, as  often  happens,  there  is  the  additional  danger  of  blows  against 
the  pipe.  Such  pipes  should  be  supported  by  three  or  four  stout 
wrought-iron  rods  firmly  secured  to  the  soil  pipe,  run  off  at  an  angle 
and  secured  to  the  roof.  A  wrought-iron  collar  placed  around  the 
pipe  and  above  a  hub,  provides  a  good  means  of  attaching  the  rods 
to  the  soil  pipe.  Another  method  is  to  tap  the  pipe  and  secure  the 
rods  by  bolts. 

Vent  pipes  from  cesspools  when  required  to  run  vertically  in  the 
open  for  a  number  of  feet  should  also  receive  special  support. 

A  very  good  method  of  providing  such  support  is  to  set  in  the 
ground,  close  to  the  cesspool,  a  heavy  pole  which  will  not  sway  under 
the  pressure  of  the  wind,  and  run  the  pipe  vertically  against  it,  sup- 
porting the  pipe  under  each  hub  by  wrought-iron  bands. 


SUPPORTING    AND    RUNNING    OF    SOIL    PIPE       97 

The  present  excellent  practice  of  connecting  main  lines  of  vent 
pipe  to  their  main  soil  and  waste  stacks  above  the  highest  fixtures, 
and  below  the  lowest  fixtures,  is  a  good  practice,  as  it  ties  the  work 
together,  giving  rigidity  to  it,  and,  in  the  event  of  settling,  allows 
both  lines  to  settle  evenly  without  resulting  in  an  unequal  strain  on 
the  two  lines  that  would  result  to  a  greater  extent  if  not  thus  con- 
nected. The  settling  of  a  line  of  cast-iron  pipe  often  results  in  pull- 
ing apart  the  caulked  lead  joints,  especially  if  the  line  is  not  properly 
supported.  For  instance,  a  vertical  line  that  may  happen  to  be  well 
supported  in  its  upper  sections,  but  poorly  supported  at  lower  points, 
is  very  liable  to  pull  apart  from  the  section  that  is  securely  fastened. 
This  sometimes  results  in  pulling  the  caulked  lead  joint  entirely  out 
of  the  hub. 

The  great  necessity  will  thus  be  apparent,  of  securing  vertical 
lines  firmly  throughout  their  course,  and  of  providing  support  at  the 
foot  of  each  stack  which  cannot  possibly  settle.  One  of  the  chief 
advantages  to  be  gained  in  the  use  of  wrought-iron  drainage  and  vent 
piping,  in  the  construction  of  the  Durham  system  of  plumbing,  is  that 
the  screw  joints  of  such  pipes  will  not  pull  apart  in  the  settling  of 
stacks,  as  the  caulked  joints  of  cast-iron  piping  will  do  when  the  pipe 
is  not  properly  supported.  As  far  as  a  vertical  pull  on  a  vertical  line 
of  screwed  pipe  is  concerned,  it  will  have  no  more  efifect  on  the  joint 
than  on  the  pipe  itself  in  pulling  it  apart. 

However,  if  proper  precautions  are  taken,  vertical  lines  of  cast- 
iron  pipe  may  be  installed  even  in  high  buildings  without  danger  of 
pulling  apart. 


Plate  XV 

THE  HOUSE  OR  MAIN  TRAP  AND  FRESH 

AIR    INLET 


C<^nshrucl-i'=>n    of 

Frzsh     Air    Inlzh 


P/0/-Z  /5. 


31 


Coro 


tzzf 


c^z, 


77^  021^  jQ)ro22^ 


Z^Zl 


-J2S022Z  <s7j^qJq> 


r^^ 


r^9  ^' 

Clca2Z'=>zj.f'ci> 

tuitzj 


72^022Z  (27 J"  O JO 


Cleoi^^z2./-^ 


71^0223  Ie)i^a2  2^ 


K\  .. 


IId>022^  (^z^apy 


C2eo2d,'='T-^f^ 


THE    HOUSE    OR    MAIN    TRAP    AND    FRESH  AIR 

INLET 

In  the  construction  of  any  plumbing  system,  one  of  the  first 
things  to  be  decided  is  whether  the  system  shall  be  protected  by  a 
main  trap  or  not. 

The  question  is  a  debatable  one,  and  has  been  since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  trap  itself.  Plate  15  shows  three  methods  of  installing 
the  main  trap  and  its  accompanying  fresh-air  inlet.  From  these 
illustrations  it  will  be  seen  that  the  main  trap  is  placed  on  the  house 
drain  at  a  point  as  close  to  the  place  where  the  drain  leaves  the 
building  as  possible. 

The  object  of  this  trap  is  to  prevent  the  entrance  into  the  plumb- 
ing system  of  gases  and  odors  from  the  sewer. 

At  first  thought,  the  entrance  of  gases  into  the  plumbing  system 
would  not  appear  to  be  harmful,  especially  as  it  has  abundant  oppor- 
tunity to  rise  and  escape  through  the  roof  pipes.  However,  although 
the  plumbing  system  of  to-day  is  subjected  to  rigid  test  after  being 
constructed  under  rigid  ordinances,  there  are  numerous  ways  in 
which  gases  rising  through  the  plumbing  system  may  enter  the  house. 
The  settling  of  floors  and  foundations  may  result  in  rendering  soil- 
pipe  joints  defective;  the  soil  piping  is  seldom  properly  supported, 
and  often  settles  or  sags  through  its  own  weight,  causing  the  same 
kind  of  trouble.  These  and  other  conditions  that  might  be  named 
are  of  such  universal  occurrence  that  it  is  safe  to  say  that  only  a 
comparatively  small  percentage  of  plumbing  systems  that  have  been 
in  service  for  a  term  of  years  would  be  able  to  show  perfect  joints 
under  test.  Even  though  the  plumbing  system,  with  all  its  various 
connections,  may  be  perfectly  tight,  still  the  danger  of  entrance  of 
sewer  gas  is  not  always  eliminated. 

Traps  of  fixtures  not  in  everyday  use  often  lose  their  seals  in  a 
comparatively  short  time,  as  do  floor  drains,  cellar  drains,  etc. 

Whenever  repairs  are  to  be  made  on  the  soil  piping  or  on  branch 
wastes,  sewer  gas  has  a  free  passage  until  the  repairs  are  completed. 

Whenever  the  water  closet  is  removed  for  repairs  or  to  be 
renewed,  sewer  gas  has  a  free  entrance  until  it  is  replaced.     Many 


I02  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

other  instances  might  be  given  in  which  the  gases  and  odors  from 
the  sewer  may  find  their  way  into  the  house. 

The  main  trap  is  provided  as  a  means  of  preventing  this  result. 

The  opponents  of  the  main  trap  claim  that  it  obstructs  the  flow 
of  sewage  through  the  house  drain,  that  the  trap  will  soon  stop  up, 
that  in  cold  weather  it  will  often  freeze.  These  objections  are  not 
serious,  and  in  many  cases  are  more  fancied  than  real.  To  be  sure, 
the  outflow  is  somewhat  impeded  by  the  trap,  but  the  gain  in  pro- 
viding protection  to  the  house  would  much  more  than  offset  such 
difliculty.  The  strongest  and  practically  the  only  real  argument 
against  the  use  of  the  main  trap  is  that  it  prevents  the  ventilation  of 
the  public  sewer  through  the  roof  pipe  of  the  building.  The  weigh- 
ing of  the  questions  which  arise  in  this  connection  is  a  very  difficult 
matter. 

In  the  first  place  it  does  not  seem  to  be  right  to  make  a  venti- 
lating flue  of  each  stack  in  each  dwelling  house,  through  which  the 
sewer  may  throw  its  gases,  to  escape  into  the  houses  through  defects 
and  openings. 

At  the  same  time,  the  main  drain  and  stacks  present  at  present 
the  most  available  means  of  ventilating  the  sewers,  and  are  therefore 
often  made  use  of.  The  closed  sewer  should  not  be  tolerated,  and 
the  present  method  of  venting  the  sewer  through  perforated  manhole 
covers  is  open  to  serious  objection,  as  it  allows  direct  communication 
between  the  streets  and  the  sewer.  Special  vent  stacks  should  be 
erected  at  high  points  in  the  sewage  system,  through  which  the  sewers 
might  vent  themselves,  but  such  means  are  not  provided,  and  there- 
fore not  to  be  considered. 

It  is  claimed  that  where  a  free  passage  exists  between  the  sewer 
and  the  outer  air  through  the  roof  extension  of  the  plumbing  sys- 
tem, a  circulation  of  air  will  be  kept  up,  by  means  of  which  fresh 
air  will  be  drawn  into  the  sewer  through  the  manhole  covers,  and 
the  foul  air  drawn  out  through  the  roof  pipes.  If  it  were  not  for  the 
matter  of  exposing  the  interior  of  the  house  to  the  admission  of 
sewer  gas  this  would  unquestionably  be  an  excellent  plan. 

Some  go  even  further,  and  claim  that  enough  fresh  air  would 
be  drawn  in  through  the  manholes  to  render  the  gases  harmless. 

This  does  not  seem  reasonable  when  it  is  considered  what  a 
small  area  the  manhole  perforations  really  represent,  and  that  a  large 
percentage  of  these  holes  are  closed  up  with  dirt,  ice  and  snow,  etc. 


HOUSE  OR  MAIN  TRAP  AND  FRESH  AIR  INLET     103 

If  the  house  could  be  guaranteed  against  the  entrance  of  gases, 
there  are  certainly  many  places  in  which  the  delivery  of  them  into 
the  air  above  the  houses  of  the  community  would  be  followed  by  no 
harmful  results. 

In  our  towns  and  cities,  however,  with  odors  and  gases  escap- 
ing through  every  roof  pipe,  a  heavy  atmosphere  must  force  them 
down  to  such  points  that  they  may  often  enter  windows,  light 
shafts,  etc. 

In  our  large  cities,  also,  where  low  buildings  adjoin  high  ones, 
it  would  seem  very  poor  policy  to  banish  the  main  trap,  for  without 
it  the  pipes  through  the  roof  of  the  lower  building  are  constantly 
throwing  their  impurities  out,  to  be  drawn  into  the  rooms  on  the 
higher  floors  of  the  high  building. 

That  they  would  be  drawn  in  in  this  way  there  is  no  question, 
as  the  circulation  of  the  warmer  air  of  the  building  would  often 
create  a  suction  sufficient  to  draw  in  the  outer  air. 

In  the  case  of  tenement  houses,  also,  whose  roofs  in  the  summer 
season  are  occupied  by  the  inmates,  the  escape  of  a  constant  stream 
of  sewer  gas  would  seem  to  be  a  thing  to  be  dreaded. 

Another,  and  a  very  strong  point  against  the  employment  of 
plumbing  systems  having  no  main  trap,  is  the  fact  that  under  such 
conditions  air  contaminated  with  disease  germs  coming  from  the 
human  excreta  of  any  infected  house  on  a  line  of  sewers,  may  find 
its  way  through  defects  in  the  plumbing  systems  of  other  houses  on 
that  line,  and  thus  gain  entrance  into  the  living  apartments  of  the 
inmates.  Plumbing  systems  should  always  be  so  installed  that  there 
may  be  no  opportunity  for  such  occurrences  as  this,  whether  in  the 
manner  just  mentioned  or  through  local  vent  systems,  which  have 
been  known  to  carry  infection  from  one  to  another  apartment  in 
the  same  building. 

For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  other  reasons,  it  is  always  poor 
practice  to  connect  the  drainage  system  of  one  house  into  that  of  a 
neighboring  house.  Such  practices  were  more  or  less  common  years 
ago,  but  since  the  matter  of  sanitary  conditions  has  begun  to  receive 
its  proper  attention,  the  connection  of  two  or  more  houses  to  the  same 
house  drain  or  sewer  has  been  strictly  prohibited. 

It  would  seem  that  there  is  an  opportunity  for  the  display  of 
good  judgment  in  the  employment  of  the  main  trap.  In  sections  of 
a  city  where  the  houses  are  detached,  as  in  the  residential  sections, 


I04  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

it  would  be  wiser  to  do  without  the  main  trap  than  in  the  more  densely 
populated  sections. 

The  use  of  the  main  trap  makes  necessary  the  use  of  the  fresh- 
air  inlet,  which,  as  shown  in  Plate  15,  must  be  connected  on  the  house 
side  of  the  trap.  The  purpose  of  this  pipe  is  to  bring  into  the  plumb- 
ing system  a  supply  of  fresh  air,  and  to  create  a  circulation  of  this 
air  through  the  system  and  out  through  the  roof  pipe.  It  also  serves 
to  prevent  air  lock  between  heavy  bodies  of  waste  flowing  down  the 
house  drain  and  the  seal  of  the  main  trap. 

If  the  fresh-air  inlet  were  connected  on  the  sewer  side  of  the 
main  trap,  it  would  not  only  fail  of  its  purpose  of  supplying  air  to 
the  system,  but  would  form  a  direct  vent  for  the  sewer  at  a  particu- 
larly bad  point. 

The  fresh-air  inlet  should  under  no  conditions  receive  drainage 
of  any  sort.  Formerly  the  fresh-air  inlet  was  connected  to  the  trap 
itself,  as  shown  in  Fig.  A,  which  method  allowed  but  one  cleanout 
to  be  used  on  the  trap,  whereas  two  should  always  be  used.  Experi- 
ence proved,  however,  that  this  connection  had  another  disadvantage, 
from  the  fact  that  it  brought  in  a  current  of  cold  air  directly  upon 
the  trap  seal,  which  resulted  in  the  chilling  and  sometimes  in  the 
freezing  of  the  water  in  the  trap.  Even  though  not  frozen,  the  chill- 
ing of  the  waste  caused  the  grease  to  separate  from  the  sewage  and 
cling  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  trap,  making  ultimate  stoppage  more 
possible. 

The  freezing  and  the  stoppage  of  the  trap  are  two  of  the  argu- 
ments against  its  use,  but  by  the  employment  of  proper  means  these 
results  may  be  largely  overcome.  The  fresh-air  inlet,  when  properly 
constructed,  is  taken  out  of  a  fitting  placed  next  to  the  trap,  on  the 
house  side  of  it.  This  fitting  may  be  either  a  tee  or  a  Y,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  B  and  C.  The  more  bends  there  are  in  the  pipe,  and  the 
more  indirect  its  course,  the  less  will  be  the  possibility  of  chilling 
and  freezing. 

The  fresh-air  inlet  should  never  end  at  a  point  within  15  ft.  of 
any  door,  window,  or  cold-air  box  supplying  heating  systems.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  when  heavy  volumes  of  sewage  pass  through 
the  house  drain,  a  discharge  of  foul  air  passes  through  the  inlet. 
This  same  trouble  also  occurs  sometimes  owing  to  a  heavy  atmos- 
phere. When  the  fresh-air  inlet  ends  at  a  distance  greater  than  15  ft. 
from  any  opening  into  the  house,  it  may  terminate  at  the  outer  face  of 


HOUSE  OR  MAIN  TRAP  AND  FRESH  AIR  INLET      105 

the  foundation,  as  seen  in  Fig.  B.  In  this  case  its  end  must  be  pro- 
vided with  a  perforated  cap,  or  with  a  bend  looking  down,  in  order 
to  prevent  different  articles,  such  as  stones,  etc.,  from  being  thrown 
into  it.  It  must  usually  be  carried  out  into  the  lawn  or  yard  to  cover 
the  requirement,  in  which  case  it  is  often  constructed,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  A,  with  a  ventilating  cap  covering  its  end,  or  ending  in  a  return 
bend,  this  bend  ending  at  least  one  foot  above  the  ground.  In  busi- 
ness districts,  where  such  devices  as  the  return  bend  and  ventilating 
cap  could  not  be  used,  the  fresh-air  inlet  should  open  into  a  box,  18 
in.  square,  located  below  the  level  of  the  sidewalk,  and  at  the  curb. 
The  bottom  of  this  box  should  be  at  least  18  in.  below  the  under  side 
of  the  end  of  the  inlet  pipe. 

The  box  may  be  constructed  of  brick  or  flagging,  or  of  cast  iron, 
and  covered  with  a  flagstone  provided  with  a  removable  iron  grat- 
ing leaded  into  the  flag.  The  grating  should  have  small  perfora- 
tions in  order  that  refuse  may  not  pass  through,  and  the  total  area  of 
the  perforations  should  at  least  equal  the  area  of  the  fresh-air  inlet. 

Another  method  of  running  the  fresh-air  inlet  is  to  carry  it 
through  the  roof,  as  seen  in  Fig.  C. 

In  general,  this  adds  considerable  expense  without  giving  much 
added  value.  An  objection  to  it,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary 
house  where  there  is  but  one  4-in.  stack,  is  that  the  weight  of  air  in 
the  stack  and  in  the  fresh-air  inlet  about  balances,  with  the  result 
that  there  is  but  little  circulation.  This  method,  however,  is  but 
seldom  used. 

As  to  size,  the  fresh-air  inlet  for  traps  up  to  4  in.  in  size  should 
be  of  the  same  size  as  the  trap. 

For  traps  larger  than  4  in.  it  may  be  less  than  the  size  of  the  trap. 

For  5-  and  6-in.  traps  the  fresh-air  inlet  should  be  4  in.  in 
diameter. 

For  7-  and  8-in.  traps,  the  fresh-air  inlet  should  be  6  in.  in  diam- 
eter; and  for  traps  larger  than  8  in.  it  should  be  8  in.  in  diameter. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  main  trap  is  set  level,  in  order 
that  none  of  its  seal  may  be  lost.  When  located  below  the  cellar 
bottom,  it  should  be  made  accessible  either  by  setting  it  in  a  brick 
manhole  provided  with  a  removable  cover,  or  by  making  depressions 
in  the  cement  bottom  so  that  the  cleanouts  may  be  easily  reached. 

The  connection  shown  in  Fig.  B,  whereby  it  is  made  possible  to 
use  an  end  cleanout,  is  an  excellent  one. 


io6  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

With  two  cleanouts  on  the  main  trap,  and  this  end  cleanout,  the 
house  drain  at  this  point  is  well  guarded  against  any  possible  stop- 
page. The  connection  referred  to  is  now  demanded  by  the  ordinances 
of  a  number  of  different  cities.  All  connections  into  the  drainage 
system  must  be  made  on  the  house  side  of  the  main  trap. 

An  exception  to  this  rule  is  made  in  the  case  of  rain  leaders, 
which  are  sometimes  run  outside  the  foundation  walls,  in  which  case 
they  may  be  connected  into  the  house  sewer  on  the  sewer  side  of  the 
main  trap.  Such  rain  leaders  must  be  properly  trapped.  The  main 
trap  is  sometimes  located  underground,  outside  the  foundation  walls, 
in  which  case  it  must  be  made  frost  proof  and  accessible.  This  is 
done  by  setting  it  below  the  freezing  level,  in  a  brick  or  stone  man- 
hole, covered  with  a  flagstone.  When  so  located,  the  fresh-air  inlet 
should  never  be  taken  off  the  trap,  as  the  passage  of  cold  air  would 
be  so  direct  as  to  cause  trouble. 


Plate  XVI 

FLOOR    AND    YARD    DRAINS— SUBSOIL 
DRAINAGE— THE  CELLAR  DRAINER 


P/o/'e  /6, 
f/oor  Drains  jg  Czf/or  Drains 


Ce<^^7Q>^^2 


<^^^<^.^zw/.<^.c^\^.'<>y-^^^^<^^^^J^:^^h>. 


J—Veiai- 


\ 


r/9/i- 


J 23  Cellar  J^^ff-c^jo:^ 
C^22Z  ^27Z  o  /j<=^jrz 


U  =  \^  s>^^  =  >y=  yy~y,  'Sit.  ^(//  j 


s 


f 


Veizf 


rig- 


p 


Qui-^(Z2^  (S^<=>2^jnrz<zci.   22^   Ce22^eTai  c^^oo^^ 


f 


•^  ' ^ 


^jQ>e2^ 
TreJI  22^ 
Ce,22^  e,2z  / 


7 


FLOOR    AND    YARD    DRAINS 

Floor  drains  are  much  used  and  of  much  vakie  on  large  work, 
especially  in  public  toilet  rooms  for  hotels,  depots,  stables,  etc. 

The  size  of  floor  and  yard  drains  should  never  be  less  than  3  in. 
in  diameter,  and  very  often,  where  there  is  much  service  required 
of  them,  and  where  there  is  any  danger  of  solids  of  any  description 
entering  them,  4  in.  is  preferable. 

The  drainage  of  yards  and  areas  in  congested  business  districts, 
and  in  densely  populated  districts,  is  a  matter  of  importance  to  the 
public  health.  Under  such  conditions,  all  areas,  yards,  paved  courts, 
and  courtyards  should  be  properly  drained. 

This  applies  especially  to  tenement-house  districts.  The  com- 
mon form  of  floor  and  yard  drains  is  of  the  style  to  be  seen  in  Fig.  A 
of  Plate  40,  provided  with  a  removable  perforated  cover.  There  are 
several  special  forms  of  drains,  such  as  those  shown  in  Figs.  A  and 
B  of  Plate  16,  some  of  them  being  provided  with  a  vent  connection. 
Ordinarily,  however,  drains  of  this  description  do  not  require  vent- 
ing, but  may  safely  be  installed  without  it,  as  in  Fig.  C. 

Floor  and  yard  drains  should  always  be  provided  with  deep- 
sealed  traps.    The  deep  seal  is  a  special  feature  of  the  trap  in  Fig.  A. 

An  excellent  form  of  trap  which  will  fill  this  requirement  is  one 
made  of  quarter  bends.  This  trap  is  generally  of  the  half-S  form 
and  may  be  easily  constructed  of  three  quarter  bends.  The  use  of 
a  very  deep  seal  on  this  class  of  work  is  not  to  be  feared,  as  it  would 
be  in  the  case  of  polluted  drainage,  for  all  drainage  passing  through 
such  drains  is  composed  practically  of  clear  water.  In  the  case  of 
other  drainage  a  very  deep  seal  would  allow  too  large  a  body  of 
sewage  to  stand  in  the  trap  to  putrefy  and  make  the  system  more 
impure  than  there  is  need  of.  The  drain  of  Fig.  B,  with  its  flushing 
device,  is  an  excellent  one  for  many  purposes,  particularly  for  use 
in  hospitals  and  on  other  work  where  general  conditions  must  be  as 
perfect  as  possible. 

The  flushing  rim  and  jet  with  which  the  drain  is  provided  allow 

the  entire  surface  to  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  the  cleansing  is 

accomplished   without    wetting   the    floor.      By   means    of    properly 

109 


no  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

arranged  supply  connections,  the  trap  may  be  flushed  with  hot  or  cold 
water,  or  w^ith  both. 

The  seal  of  this  trap  is  of  much  greater  depth  than  that  of  the 
ordinary  floor  drain.  The  connection  of  the  water  supply  with  drains 
of  this  description  is  an  excellent  idea,  as  a  very  small  drip  may  be 
provided  which  will  insure  a  permanent  seal  in  the  trap.  Yard 
drains,  for  instance,  in  times  of  drought,  and  especially  when  not 
provided  with  deep-seal  traps,  may  become  a  source  of  danger  from 
loss  of  the  trap  seal.  This  source  of  danger,  by  the  way,  is  an  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  use  of  a  main  trap. 

Many  plumbing  ordinances  demand  that  floor  and  cellar  drains 
shall  be  water  supplied,  and  this  is  certainly  a  needed  precaution. 

Floor  and  yard  drains  need  not  be  separately  trapped  when  one 
trap  can  be  made  to  serve  two  or  more  drains,  or  where  such  drains 
are  so  connected  as  to  be  controlled  by  the  trap  of  a  rain  leader.  In 
fact,  the  use  of  a  single  trap,  especially  a  rain-leader  trap,  to  control 
one  or  more  floor  or  yard  drains  is  an  excellent  means  of  protection, 
as  the  permanence  of  the  seal  of  such  trap  is  more  positive  than  the 
seals  of  separate  traps  would  be. 

In  many  cities  a  separate  system  of  sewers  is  used  for  the  dis- 
posal of  surface  and  subsoil  waters,  no  house  drainage  being  allowed 
to  enter  it.  In  this  case  all  floor  and  yard  drains,  roof  leaders,  sub- 
soil drains,  etc.,  should  enter  the  surface  water  system.  When  these 
drains  enter  the  house  drainage  system,  however,  no  drainage  which 
is  not  of  clear  water  should  be  allowed  to  enter  them. 

Vitrified  earthen  pipe  may  be  used  for  stable  drains  and  for  yard 
drains  which  are  not  connected  with  any  house  drain.  Such  drains 
must  always  be  trapped  and  connected  to  the  house  sewer  outside  of 
the  connection  of  the  house  drain  to  the  house  sewer. 

When  drains  are  of  vitrified  earthen  pipe  they  should  not  be  less 
than  5  in.  in  diameter. 

The  practice  is  sometimes  followed  of  using  any  convenient 
cleanout  opening  as  a  cellar-floor  drain,  but  it  is  a  poor  practice,  and 
should  not  be  followed. 

The  construction  of  the  cellar  drain  is  shown  in  Fig.  C.  This 
drain  is  naturally  located  at  the  end  of  the  cellar  at  which  the  house 
drain  passes  out,  as  the  house  drain  pitches  in  this  direction.  The 
cement  bottom  should  be  graded  from  the  several  sides  of  the  cellar 
toward  the  entrance  to  the  cellar  drain. 


SUBSOIL    DRAINAGE  iii 

A  catch  basin  or  well  is  generally  formed  in  the  cement,  and  at 
the  bottom  of  it  the  cellar  drain  trap  is  located.  Even  though  the 
system  is  provided  with  a  main  trap,  a  trap  should  be  used  on  the 
cellar  drain. 

Without  it,  odors  from  the  house  drain  would  pass  through  the 
cellar  drain  and  out  into  the  cellar. 

The  practice  of  double  trapping  on  this  part  of  the  work  will 
not  be  followed  by  the  troubles  that  generally  follow  double  trapping, 
for  the  passage  of  water  from  the  cellar  drain  is  seldom  of  large 
volume. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  form  in  the  cement  bottom  a  small  gutter, 
following  around  the  entire  cellar  wall  and  close  to  it,  this  gutter 
being  led  into  the  catch  basin  of  the  cellar  drain.  By  means  of  the 
gutter,  and  the  grading  of  the  cellar  bottom,  any  water  entering 
the  cellar  through  the  upper  part  of  the  foundation,  or  discharging 
onto  the  floor  through  leaks  in  the  water  piping,  may  find  its  way 
into  the  cellar  drain. 

SUBSOIL    DRAINAGE 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  health  of  the  inmates  that 
the  cellar  be  kept  as  free  from  dampness  as  possible. 

In  the  case  of  damp  soil,  a  system  of  subsoil  drainage  should 
always  be  employed. 

Subsoil  drains  are  constructed  of  earthenware  drain  tile,  laid 
with  open,  uncemented  joints.  The  moisture  of  the  damp  soil  enters 
the  drain  through  these  open  joints.  The  subsoil  drain  should  be 
laid  completely  around  the  cellar  wall,  and  whenever  necessary  may 
have  branches  running  in  to  the  center  of  the  cellar.  The  drain 
should  be  laid  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  foundation  wall,  and 
about  six  inches  inside  of  it.  The  subsoil  drain  should  be  laid  on 
an  even  grade,  pitching  toward  the  catch  basin  to  which  it  is  to  be 
connected,  it  being  necessary  to  connect  it  always  into  such  a  catch 
basin  properly  trapped  and  entered  into  the  house  drain. 

The  catch  basin  is  generally  constructed  of  concrete,  and  made 
in  the  form  of  an  open  well  in  the  concrete  cellar  bottom,  and  covered 
by  a  stone  or  cast-iron  cover. 

Whenever  the  sewer  to  which  such  a  catch  basin  is  connected  is 
known  to  back  up,  the  trap  of  the  catch  basin  should  be  provided 
with  a  back-water  valve. 


112  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

THE    CELLAR    DRAINER 

When  the  house  drain  is  run  overhead,  it  is  clear  that  the  cellar 
and  subsoil  drainage  cannot  be  disposed  of  by  gravity  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  as  just  described.  The  device  used  in  raising  the  subsoil 
water  is  the  automatic  cellar  drainer,  and  it  is  also  used  for  remov- 
ing water  from  excavations,  wheel  pits,  or  other  depressions  where 
water  accumulates. 

The  drainer  is  placed  in  a  pit  or  manhole  below  the  cellar  bot- 
tom, into  which  the  drainage  to  be  raised  is  discharged.  As  soon  as 
the  water  collects  to  the  depth  of  about  a  foot  in  the  pit,  the  drainer 
opens  and  discharges  the  water. 

As  the  water  rises  in  the  pit,  a  float  attached  to  the  drainer  is 
gradually  raised,  and  when  a  certain  level  is  reached,  the  lever  to 
which  it  is  attached  opens  the  valve  wide,  allowing  water  or  steam 
pressure  to  pass  through  the  drainer,  and  thereby  drawing  or  suck- 
ing the  water  from  the  pit  into  the  discharge  pipe. 

The  drainer  is  generally  operated  by  water  pressure,  this  con- 
nection being  made  to  any  supply  pipe.  The  water  passes  under  full 
pressure  through  the  drainer  point  or  jet,  thus  creating  the  necessary 
suction  to  draw  the  water  out.  When  the  water  has  been  removed 
from  the  pit,  the  valve  instantly  closes,  and  the  drainer  again  becomes 
inactive. 

The  water  in  passing  through  the  jet  of  the  drainer  creates  a 
vacuum,  this  vacuum  being  the  means  of  producing  the  necessary 
suction.  The  discharge  pipe  from  the  drainer  should  empty  the  water 
of  the  pit,  and  the  pressure  water  used  in  operating  the  apparatus, 
into  a  sink  or  pan  located  above  the  house  drain,  into  which  the 
drainage  may  then  flow  by  gravity.  The  sink  or  pan  should  be 
trapped  and  vented  in  the  same  manner  as  any  other  fixture. 

In  general,  the  cellar  drainer  requires  a  water  pressure  of  four 
or  five  pounds  for  each  foot  through  which  the  water  is  to  be  raised 
vertically.  The  cellar  drainer  is  not  adapted  to  raising  water  over 
12  ft.  usually,  and  many  of  them  lose  much  of  their  efficiency  after 
passing  8  ft. 

The  drainer  may  be  located  in  an  underground  box  or  barrel. 
Cellar  drainers  are  capable  of  raising  from  250  to  1,200  gallons  of 
water  per  hour. 

The  sizes  of  supply  pipe  generally  used  are  ^  in.  for  small 
sizes,  %  in.  for  medium  sizes,  and  i  in.  and  larger  for  large  sizes. 


Plate  XVII 

WATER    CLOSETS— FLOOR   CONNECTIONS 


Cei2zeizf 
head 


J^ra<s<§ 


head 
Me2zd 


r/9'  ^.  Ir<=>2z 


r'9  G, 


-J^eod. 
J^ejzd 


fig-  H, 


WATER    CLOSETS 

Probably  no  other  plumbing  fixture  or  device  has  passed  through 
such  great  changes  and  been  brought  from  a  most  unsanitary  condi- 
tion to  a  condition  of  such  high  excellence  as  the  water  closet. 

A  volume  might  be  written  on  the  changes  that  have  been 
wrought  in  its  construction,  but  as  this  work  is  designed  to  deal  only 
with  present-day  plumbing,  only  those  fixtures  now  actually  in  use 
will  be  considered. 

A  water  closet  to  be  sanitary  should  possess  the  following  fea- 
tures: It  should  be  protected  by  means  of  a  trap  within  itself,  this 
trap  having  a  good  seal ;  there  should  be  as  small  an  area  of  surface 
exposed  to  contact  with  soil  as  possible,  and  all  such  surfaces  should 
be  thoroughly  scoured;  the  flushing  of  the  fixture  should  be  accom- 
plished as  noiselessly  as  possible,  and  without  unnecessary  waste  of 
water ;  the  trap  seal  should  be  exposed  to  view ;  no  mechanical  devices 
should  be  employed  in  the  operation  of  the  fixture,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  flush  tank;  and  for  flushing  the  fixture  it  should  never  be 
directly  connected  to  the  water-supply  system. 

Modern  water  closets  are  superior  to  the  old-style  water  closets 
of  the  pan,  valve,  and  plunger  styles  in  every  respect.  They  avoid 
dead  ends  that  are  neither  provided  with  water  nor  with  ventilation; 
surfaces  between  the  bowl  and  its  trap,  that  in  the  old  fixtures  were 
protected  in  no  way,  are  now  submerged;  the  modern  water  closet 
is  provided  also  with  better  ventilation,  a  stronger  flush,  is  more 
noiseless,  and  is  far  more  cleanly. 

The  leading  forms  of  water  closets  now  in  use  are  the  washout, 
washdown,  siphon,  and  siphon-jet,  the  two  first  named  being  used 
very  extensively  in  many  cities  on  the  cheaper  class  of  work. 

Since  the  principle  of  siphonic  action  has  been  applied  to  the 
water  closet,  however,  the  siphon  and  siphon- jet  fixtures  have  taken 
the  precedence  over  all  other  forms,  and  it  appears  to  be  only  a  matter 
of  time  before  they  will  supplant  the  less  satisfactory  forms  entirely. 

The  four  water  closets  mentioned  above  are  illustrated  in  Plate 
17,  Fig.  A  showing  the  washout  style,  Fig.  B  the  washdown,  Fig.  C 
the  siphon,  and  Fig.  D  the  siphon-jet. 

"5 


ii6  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

The  washout  water  closet  is  somewhat  different  from  other 
forms,  from  the  fact  that  soil,  as  it  enters  the  fixture,  falls  into  a 
shallow  pool  of  water  above  the  trap,  from  which  it  must  be  con- 
veyed by  the  flush  into  and  out  of  the  trap.  The  meeting  of  the  flush 
with  the  resistance  above  the  trap  and  with  the  resistance  which  the 
soil  presents,  impedes  its  force  to  a  great  extent,  with  the  result  that 
the  water  merely  runs  over  the  dip  into  the  trap  without  much 
force,  losing  thereby  much  of  the  scouring  effect  that  it  would 
otherwise  have. 

So  much  of  the  energy  of  the  flush  is  used  up  in  removing  the 
soil  from  the  upper  shallow  bowl  that  it  has  not  sufficient  energy  to 
perform  the  work  needed  in  driving  out  the  contents  of  the  trap. 
This  same  loss  of  force  is  to  be  observed  in  the  flushing  of  the  old 
pressure  closet,  in  which  the  flush  is  sent  around  the  bowl.  There 
is  one  advantage  that  is  not  often  considered  that  the  washout  water 
closet  has  in  having  its  upper  shallow  pool.  The  location  of  the  pool 
allows  excreta  to  remain  in  sight,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  sick  room, 
is  often  desirable  to  the  physician  and  nurse.  For  this  reason  the 
washout  water  closet  is  sometimes  made  use  of  in  private  infirmaries. 

The  washdown  water  closet  is  an  improvement  over  the  wash- 
out, as  the  action  of  the  flush  is  more  severe  and  its  scouring  qualities 
therefore  better. 

Surfaces,  which  in  the  washout  closet  are  left  exposed,  in  the 
washdown  closet  are  submerged,  making  the  latter  much  the  more 
cleanly  of  the  two. 

At  length,  however,  the  principle  of  siphonage  was  applied  to 
the  action  of  the  washdown  water  closet,  this  step  marking  a  very 
great  advance  in  water-closet  construction. 

In  the  washdown-siphon  water  closet,  the  outlet  is  through  a 
horizontal  leg,  which  is  contracted  so  that  its  area  is  considerably 
less  than  that  of  the  passage  above  it.  As  the  flush  enters  the  fix- 
ture, and  the  contents  of  the  trap  pass  out  through  the  vertical 
passage,  the  water  in  passing  through  this  passage  attains  a  much 
higher  velocity  than  it  has  when  it  reaches  the  contracted  horizontal 
leg.  The  outflow  being  thus  retarded,  the  water  completely  fills  the 
horizontal  leg,  and  as  it  passes  out  creates  a  vacuum  behind  it. 

With  nothing  but  the  water  in  the  trap  to  resist  it,  atmospheric 
pressure  exerted  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  trap  seal,  forces  the  con- 
tents of  the  trap  out  through  the  outlet  and  into  the  drainage  system. 


WATER    CLOSETS  117 

Atmospheric  pressure  is  approximately  14.7  lbs.  per  square  inch,  and 
it  is  this  amount  of  pressure  that  acts  to  force  the  contents  of  the 
water-closet  trap.  When  the  siphon  finally  breaks,  enough  water  fills 
into  the  bowl  to  fill  the  trap,  when  it  is  ready  for  another  operation. 

The  application  of  the  principle  of  the  siphon  to  the  washdown 
water  closet  allows  a  larger  amount  of  the  surface  of  the  bowl  to  be 
submerged  than  possible  to  obtain  in  the  same  form  of  closet  in  which 
sole  dependence  is  made  on  a  rush  of  water  to  operate  it.  In  the 
siphon  closet  there  is  not  only  a  pushing  force  exerted  by  the  water 
entering  the  fixture,  but  there  is  also  the  force  of  suction  pulling  the 
contents  of  the  trap  out  of  the  fixture. 

The  next  step  in  advance  in  water-closet  construction  was  the 
application  of  the  water  jet  to  the  siphon  closet,  as  seen  in  Eig.  D. 

In  the  washdown-siphon  water  closet  the  formation  of  siphonic 
action  depends  entirely  upon  the  filling  of  the  outlet,  and  until  enough 
water  flows  out  of  the  trap  to  accomplish  this  the  action  does  not 
take  place. 

In  the  case  of  the  siphon- jet  water  closet,  additional  aid  is  pro- 
vided for  the  complete  filling  of  the  water  closet  outlet. 

At  the  point  where  the  flush  enters  the  fixture,  it  divides,  a  part 
entering  the  bowl  through  the  flushing  rim,  the  rest  entering  a  small 
passage  which  leads  into  the  trap  in  such  a  way  that  its  opening  shall 
point  directly  up  the  middle  arm  of  the  trap,  from  which  it  emerges 
in  the  form  of  a  jet.  The  force  with  which  this  jet  emerges  will 
help  to  raise  the  water  and  cause  it  to  pass  over  into  the  vertical 
arm.  The  aid  obtained  from  this  jet,  in  addition  to  the  natural  flow 
of  the  contents  of  the  trap  into  the  contracted  horizontal  leg,  quickly 
forms  a  solid  plug  of  water,  a  vacuum  forms,  and  siphonage  takes 
place,  as  seen  above. 

This  entire  action  is  very  strong,  and  in  the  case  of  both  fix- 
tures shown  in  Figs.  C  and  D,  all  surfaces  are  thoroughly  flushed. 
These  excellent  features  make  of  these  two  fixtures  the  most  sani- 
tary and  most  satisfactory  water  closets  on  the  market.  In  addition, 
there  is  less  annoyance  from  the  noise  created  by  flushing  the  siphon 
water  closet  than  others. 

The  washout  water  closet,  with  its  shallow  seal  and  its  surfaces 
exposed  to  the  contact  of  the  soil,  may  be  procured  at  far  less  cost 
than  the  siphon  jet,  and  it  may  be  said  that  this  fact  is  the  only  one 
that  makes  its  use  favored  by  anyone  who  is  at  all  acquainted  with 


ii8  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

the  subject.  The  washdown-siphon  water  closet  may  be  obtained  at 
a  sHght  advance  over  the  cost  of  the  washout,  the  difference  being 
so  shght  that  it  would  seem  that  no  one  desiring  proper  sanitary 
conditions  would  hesitate  a  second  in  selecting  the  siphon  closet. 

The  siphon  form  of  water  closet  is  the  only  one  that  should  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  low  tank,  the  reason  for  this  being  that, 
although  the  flush  inlet  from  the  tank  is  enlarged  to  make  up  for  the 
loss  in  head  which  is  secured  in  the  high  tank,  enough  water  cannot 
be  thrown  into  the  closet  from  the  low  tank  to  make  the  flushing 
of  the  fixture  sufficiently  strong. 

By  the  aid  of  the  siphon,  however,  the  low  tank  is  able  to  pro- 
duce excellent  results. 

There  are  numerous  other  water  closets,  working  on  slightly 
different  construction  than  those  shown  in  Plate  17,  which  will  hardly 
be  worth  considering,  as  those  already  discussed  are  most  generally 
in  use.  The  hopper  and  trap  form  of  water  closet,  in  its  various 
forms,  appears,  in  comparison  to  the  modern  high-grade  fixture,  to 
be  of  a  very  primitive  character,  and  is  now  generally  prohibited. 

The  use  of  the  offset  water  closet  is  a  practice  which  should 
never  be  allowed.  This  form  of  closet  is  made  for  use  in  connec- 
tion with  the  lead  or  iron  trap  used  with  the  pan,  pressure,  long 
hopper,  and  other  closets. 

Very  often,  when  closets  of  this  class  were  taken  out,  instead 
of  taking  out  the  trap  beneath  the  floor,  it  would  be  allowed  to 
remain,  and  the  offset  water  closet,  which  has  no  trap,  set  in  place  of 
the  old  fixture.  The  reason  that  one  of  the  modern  closets  could  not 
be  used  instead  of  the  offset  closet  was  that  there  would  then  be  two 
traps  on  the  same  fixture.  The  objections  to  the  use  of  the  offset 
water  closet  are  that  the  flush  loses  its  force  before  it  reaches  the 
trap,  consequently  not  flushing  the  trap  to  any  extent,  and  that  there 
is  a  large  amount  of  polluted  surface,  extending  from  the  crockery 
into  the  trap  below  the  floor,  which  gives  off  foul  and  unsanitary 
odors  into  the  room  in  which  the  fixture  is  located.  The  offset  closet 
is  made  in  such  a  manner  as  to  deceive  those  not  acquainted  with  the 
subject  into  the  belief  that  it  is  a  fixture  built  on  modern  principles. 

The  only  course  to  pursue  in  renewing  such  work  as  the  above, 
is  to  tear  out  the  trap  under  the  floor,  replace  it  with  a  lead  bend, 
and  use  a  modern  type  of  water  closet. 

Vitreous  chinaware  is  now  used  in  the  construction  of  all  first- 


WATER-CLOSET    FLOOR    CONNECTIONS  119 

class  water  closets.  This  ware  is  formed  of  compact  material,  which 
is  subjected  to  a  high  heat  before  being  glazed.  In  the  employment 
of  this  material  there  is  no  danger  from  the  cracking  or  "  crazing  " 
of  the  glazed  surfaces.  In  former  times,  before  modern  processes 
were  employed,  the  crazing  of  the  water  closet  was  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, resulting  in  the  absorption  of  moisture  by  the  exposed  sur- 
faces under  the  glazing,  the  fixture  in  time  becoming  foul  and  very 
unsanitary. 

All  water  closets,  as  well  as  lip  urinals  and  slop  sinks,  should 
have  flushing  rims,  so  as  to  flush  the  entire  surface  of  the  crockery. 

Water  closets  should  never  be  located  in  dark  or  unventilated 
places,  and  the  practice  of  installing  them  in  cellars,  although  fol- 
lowed to  considerable  extent,  is  not  a  wise  proceeding.  Sunlight  and 
air  are  two  powerful  purifying  agents,  and  when  fixtures  such  as 
water  closets  and  urinals  are  placed  where  ventilation  is  not  pro- 
vided and  sunlight  cannot  enter,  the  conditions  must  necessarily 
become  unsanitary,  and  the  place  where  the  fixtures  are  located  filled 
with  impure  air.  For  this  same  reason  the  open  plumbing  of  the 
present  day  is  much  more  sanitary  and  much  more  wholesome  than 
the  old-style  boxed-in  plumbing. 


WATER-CLOSET    FLOOR    CONNECTIONS 

Floor  connections,  although  often  receiving  scant  attention,  are 
an  important  feature  in  obtaining  sanitary  conditions.  Several  forms 
of  this  connection  are  shown  in  Plate  17.  Fig.  H  shows  the  simplest 
and  probably  most  common  connection,  and  at  the  same  time  most 
unsatisfactory  and  unsanitary. 

This  method  consists  in  flanging  the  lead  bend  over  onto  the 
floor,  filling  the  groove  around  the  outlet  of  the  closet  bowl  with  a 
ring  of  putty,  and  screwing  the  bowl  to  the  floor.  The  putty  com- 
presses and  forms  the  joint. 

In  the  event  of  pressure  against  the  fixture,  shrinking  or  rotting 
of  the  floor,  this  joint  will  break  and  allow  a  leakage  of  gas  into  the 
house.  In  addition,  the  oil  in  the  putty  often  spreads  and  discolors 
the  flooring  around  the  fixture. 

A  much  better  form  of  connection  is  to  be  found  in  Fig.  G.  Here 
the  lead  bend  is  brought  up  through  a  brass  flange,  and  soldered  to 


I20  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

the  latter,  as  shown.  A  rubber  gasket  is  placed  between  the  flange 
and  the  base  of  the  water  closet,  and  the  whole  fastened  together 
and  made  tight  by  means  of  brass  bolts.  This  makes  a  connection 
which  should  never  leak,  even  though  there  be  shrinkage  or  settling 
of  the  floor  on  which  the  fixture  rests. 

Fig.  E  shows  a  patented  form  of  floor  connection  which  also 
makes  a  good  joint.  The  base  of  the  closet  is  recessed  to  receive  a 
brass-screw  connection,  it  being  made  firmly  to  the  crockery  by 
cement  and  lead. 

A  female  brass-screw  connection  is  soldered  inside  the  top  part 
of  the  lead  bend,  and  the  closet  screwed  down  into  it.  The  joint 
formed  between  the  brass  and  the  crockery  makes  the  former  prac- 
tically an  integral  part  of  the  closet. 

Fig.  F  shows  a  floor  connection  for  use  in  connection  with 
wrought-iron  soil  pipe,  such  as  is  used  for  the  Durham  system. 

A  brass  floor  plate  or  flange  is  screwed  into  the  end  of  the  ell 
or  other  waste  fitting  in  use,  and  a  tight  joint  made  by  using  a  rubber 
gasket  between  the  flange  and  the  base  of  the  water  closet,  the  latter 
beinof  screwed  to  the  floor. 


Plate  XVIII 

LOCAL    VENTING 


/r.  c. 


<.A 


^ 


va 


r'9-  ° 


LOCAL    VENTING 

A  LOCAL  or  surface  vent  is  a  vent  provided  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  off  foul  odors  incident  to  the  use  of  the  water  closet. 

This  pipe  is  also  applied  to  the  urinal  and  slop  sink  to  good 
advantage.  The  local  vent  has  no  relation  whatever  to  the  drainage 
system  or  to  the  back-venting  system,  and  may  be  considered  as  a 
measure  looking  to  the  comfort  of  the  people  making  use  of  the  fix- 
tures to  which  it  is  applied,  rather  than  as  a  strictly  sanitary  measure. 

Local  ventilation  dift"ers  in  no  way  from  any  other  form  of 
ventilation. 

The  system  generally  in  use  consists  in  connecting  a  pipe  from 
the  local  vent  spud  on  the  water-closet  bowl  to  a  heated  flue.  A 
good  feature  of  this  form  of  ventilation  is  that  it  is  accomplished 
without  any  expense  of  operation.  As  long  as  a  sufficient  difference 
in  temperature  between  the  air  of  the  toilet  room  and  the  air  of  the 
flue  exists,  excellent  results  may  be  maintained  by  means  of  this 
system. 

The  heated  air  of  the  flue  being  lighter  because  of  being  ex- 
panded by  the  heat,  rises  through  the  flue,  the  tendenc}^  being  to 
produce  a  vacuum  behind  the  column  of  constantly  rising  hot  air.  A 
suction  is  thus  caused  on  the  air  in  the  pipe  connecting  to  the,  rim  of 
the  water  closet,  and  this  air  is  drawn  into  the  flue  and  forced  up 
and  out  of  it  by  the  current  of  heated  air.  The  suction  is  often  so 
strong  that  small  pieces  of  paper  thrown  into  the  water-closet  bowl 
will  be  forcibly  drawn  into  the  local  vent  pipe  and  into  the  flue.  The 
only  point  against  this  form  of  ventilation  is  the  fact  that  it  cannot 
always  be  connected  to  a  flue  which  is  heated  throughout  the  year. 
It  is  a  form  of  vent  which  is  used  principally  in  dwellings,  tenement 
houses,  and  other  buildings  in  which  the  flue  to  which  the  local  vents 
are  connected  is  not  likely  to  be  heated  during  the  warm  months. 

On  larger  work,  such  as  public  toilet  rooms,  other  means  are 
used  for  obtaining  ventilation. 

However,  in  most  cases  where  the  local  vent  is  applied,  no  other 

ventilation  would  probably  be  made  use  of  because  of  the  expense  of 

123 


124  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

running  the  mechanical  devices  used  in  producing  it,  and  it  would 
therefore  seem  of  much  advantage  to  the  inmates  to  be  able  to  enjoy 
its  comforts  during  those  months  when  the  flues  are  heated.  There 
is  this  to  be  said  concerning  the  months  of  the  year  when  it  might 
not  produce  results:  the  windows  at  such  season  of  the  year  are 
generally  wide  open,  and  the  need  of  artificial  ventilation  not  so  great 
as  during  the  period  when  the  local  vent  does  its  work  thoroughly. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  the  toilet  room  provided  with  the  local 
vent  is  far  more  wholesome  than  the  one  which  is  without  it.  This 
vent,  sometimes  called  a  seat  vent,  opens  into  the  water-closet  bowl 
just  back  of  and  below  the  seat,  and  while  the  water  closet  is  in  use 
carries  off  all  the  odors  incident  to  its  use.  In  addition,  when  the 
cover  of  the  closet  is  down,  there  is  sufficient  space  for  air  to  enter 
the  bowl  and  pass  into  the  vent  between  the  seat  and  the  crockery, 
which  are  kept  apart  by  means  of  rubber  bumpers  on  the  seat.  There- 
fore the  local  vent  is  at  all  times  providing  ventilation  not  only  for 
the  water  closet  itself,  but  for  the  entire  toilet  room. 

In  order  to  provide  proper  ventilation  three  factors  are  neces- 
sary. There  must  be  an  inward  passage  of  fresh  air  and  outward 
passage  of  foul  air,  and  a  force  acting  to  produce  the  movement  of 
air  which  results  in  the  changing  of  the  air.  The  first  factor  named 
is  one  most  likely  to  be  omitted  in  providing  a  system  of  ventilation. 
Foul  air  will  not  pass  out  of  the  toilet  room  unless  other  air  is  brought 
in  to  take  its  place.  The  demand  for  a  supply  of  fresh  air  is  very 
largely  filled  by  natural  means.  Open  windows,  the  entrance  of 
air  through  window  casings,  etc.,  supply  in  general  a  considerable 
amount  of  fresh  air.  In  addition,  it  is  a  fact  that  air  passes  through 
brick  walls  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  and  through  the  plaster- 
ing as  well. 

Many  plumbing  ordinances  do  not  make  the  use  of  local  ventila- 
tion compulsory.  Even  though  it  is  not  compulsory  to  use  the  local 
vent  in  all  toilet  rooms,  there  are  certain  conditions  under  which  it 
certainly  should  be  used  as  a  sanitary  precaution. 

In  this  connection  the  following  requirement  is  a  good  one: 

All  water  closets,  slop  sinks,  and  urinals  should  be  provided  with 
local  vents  when  located  in  rooms  which  receive  their  light  from  light 
shafts,  skylights,  or  courtyards,  or  when  located  in  compartments  not 
directly  connected  with  the  outside  atmosphere  and  sunlight.  The 
application  of  the  local  vent  may  be  made  more  universal  by  provid- 


LOCAL   VENTING  125 

ing  artificial  means  of  creating  a  draft  when  it  is  impossible  to  enter 
a  heated  flue  or  a  flue  which  is  always  heated.  Under  such  condi- 
tions an  excellent  method  is  to  carry  the  local  vents  up  to  an  airtight 
box  or  compartment  heated  by  means  of  gas  jets,  the  pipe  from  which 
should  be  carried  3  ft.  or  more  above  the  roof,  ending  in  an  auto- 
matic ventilator.  Another  method  of  a  similar  nature  is  to  provide 
a  specially  constructed  device  of  the  kind  shown  in  Fig.  C,  Plate  18. 
This  may  be  inserted  in  the  main  vertical  line  of  local  vent,  and  will 
be  found  to  perform  excellent  service  at  only  a  slight  cost  for  the 
consumption  of  gas. 

Figs.  A  and  B  of  Plate  18  show  two  different  systems  of  local 
venting.  Fig.  A  gives  the  separate  system  of  vents,  in  which  the 
vent  from  each  water  closet  is  carried  separately  to  the  point  where 
entrance  is  made  into  the  heated  flue. 

The  system  shown  in  Fig.  B  consists  of  a  main  vertical  line, 
into  which  the  local  vent  from  each  water  closet  is  entered,  and  is 
probably  more  commonly  in  use  than  the  system  first  mentioned. 
The  system  of  separate  vents  of  Fig.  A  has  very  decided  advantages 
over  the  other  system. 

In  the  event  of  the  presence  in  one  apartment  of  a  contagious 
disease,  it  is  possible  in  the  use  of  the  system  of  Fig.  B  to  communi- 
cate the  disease  to  the  inmates  of  other  apartments  in  the  building. 

This  would  be  especially  true  of  apartments  the  water  closets  of 
which  backed  up  to  opposite  sides  of  the  same  partition.  In  the  same 
way,  in  the  use  of  the  system  of  Fig.  B,  conversation  and  other 
sounds  may  be  carried  from  the  toilet  room  of  one  apartment  into 
the  toilet  rooms  of  other  apartments.  The  separate  system  of  local 
vents  suffers  from  none  of  these  objectionable  features,  and  although 
certainly  somewhat  more  expensive  to  install,  the  additional  outlay 
should  not  be  considered  if  the  matter  of  freedom  from  the  evils 
mentioned  is  to  be  secured.  The  local  vent  from  a  single  water 
closet  should  never  be  less  than  2  in.  in  diameter.  When  two,  three, 
or  four  vents  enter  a  main  line  of  local  vent,  the  main  vent  should 
not  be  less  than  3  in.  in  diameter. 

These  are  the  sizes  ordinarily  used  in  the  local-vent  system,  and 
are  the  sizes  generally  specified  in  plumbing  ordinances,  but  are  not 
strictly  in  accord  with  the  principles  that  should  be  followed  in  secur- 
ing a  perfect  system  of  ventilation. 

Providing  that  a  2-in.  pipe  is  of  sufficient  size  to  thoroughly 


126  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

ventilate  a  single  water  closet,  at  the  point  where  the  second  vent 
enters,  the  pipe  should  be  enlarged  so  that  its  area  shall  be  equal  to 
the  combined  area  of  the  two  vents  which  it  supplies.  When  the 
third  vent  enters  it,  the  size  should  be  such  that  its  area  will  be  equal 
to  the  combined  areas  of  the  three  branch  vents.  This  gradation  in 
the  size  of  the  main  local-vent  pipe  is  necessary  if  each  water  closet 
is  to  receive  its  full  amount  of  ventilation,  that  is,  if  each  water  closet 
is  to  be  ventilated  as  it  would  be  if  its  individual  2-in.  local  vent  were 
able  to  perform  its  full  duties.  The  area  of  a  2-in.  pipe  is  3.14  sq. 
in. ;  of  two  2-in.  pipes,  6.28  sq.  in. ;  and  of  three  2-in.  pipes,  9.42  sq.  in. 
The  area  of  a  3-in.  pipe  is  7  in.,  and  it  will  therefore  be  seen  that 
while  a  3-in.  pipe  is  sufficiently  large  to  provide  for  two  2-in.  vents, 
it  is  not  large  enough  to  provide  for  a  larger  number. 

The  main,  in  order  to  properly  provide  for  three  fixtures,  should 
be  3;^  in.  in  diameter,  and  4  in.  for  four  fixtures.  While  2-in.  local 
vents  to  the  several  water  closets  will  accomplish  good  work,  single 
vents  of  2}4  in.  diameter  will  be  found  to  do  better  work.  When 
this  size  is  used,  it  will  be  found  that  two  water  closets  will  require 
a  main  vent  3^  in.  in  diameter,  and  three  water  closets,  4^  in.  in 
diameter.  This  shows  an  increase  in  the  main  local  vent  of  one 
inch  in  diameter  for  each  additional  water  closet,  but  after  the  third 
fixture  has  been  added  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  main  need  not 
be  so  great.  Water  closets  on  which  the  local  vent  is  to  be  connected 
should  be  provided  with  a  spud,  which  may  be  on  the  right  or  left- 
hand  side,  as  may  be  desired.  As  the  local  vent  has  no  connection 
with  the  drainage  system  or  with  the  trap-vent  system,  it  is  not  an 
essential  feature  that  its  joints  should  be  gas  tight.  For  local  vents 
either  copper  or  galvanized  sheet-iron  pipe  is  used.  Where  the  vent 
is  exposed  to  view,  and  neat-looking  work  is  desired,  the  copper  pipe 
may  be  nickel  plated.  All  changes  in  direction,  reduction  or  increase 
in  size  of  local  vents  should  be  made  with  long  ells,  reducers  and  Ys. 

Y-branches  and  45-degree  bends  are  preferable  to  tees,  as  they 
make  the  course  of  the  air  currents  more  easily  taken,  and  thus 
improve  the  draft. 

The  local  vent  should  pitch  upward  throughout  its  course,  in 
order  to  facilitate  the  work  of  the  vent  as  much  as  possible.  Heated 
air  naturally  rises,  and  therefore  it  is  always  poor  practice  in  run- 
ning pipes  to  convey  such  air  in  any  other  way  than  pitching  upward 
toward  the  point  of  delivery.    For  the  sake  of  convenience  local  vents 


LOCAL    VENTING  127 

are  often  bent  downward  to  avoid  some  obstruction,  and  then  carried 
upward  again,  a  very  poor  practice  when  it  can  by  any  means  be 
avoided. 

Main  local  vents  connected  to  a  heated  flue  should  not  have  an 
area  exceeding  one  tenth  the  area  of  the  flue  itself.  Local-vent  con- 
nections with  heated  flues  should  always  be  made  at  points  above  the 
highest  opening  into  the  flue.  If  made  below,  the  foul  odors  carried 
in  the  local-vent  pipe  may  escape  into  the  rooms  with  which  flue 
openings  communicate. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  making  the  proper  chimney  connection 
for  local  vents.  An  excellent  method  is  to  use  copper  pipe  for  con- 
nection into  the  chimney,  the  local  vent  lines  being  connected  to  the 
pipe.  A  cast-iron  ferrule  may  also  be  used  for  the  purpose,  but  gal- 
vanized sheet  iron  should  not  be  used,  as  the  soot  of  the  chimney  is 
liable  to  destroy  it  after  a  time. 

The  chimney  connection  may  be  run  straight  into  the  chimney, 
or  it  may  be  turned  upward,  an  objection  to  the  latter  method  being 
the  danger  of  the  collection  in  the  pipe  of  falling  soot. 

When  so  constructed,  it  is  good  practice  to  provide  a  cleanout 
at  the  outer  end  of  the  chimney  connection,  for  use  in  clearing  any 
obstruction. 

The  pointing  downward  of  the  pipe  by  means  of  a  bend  inside 
the  chimney  obviates  trouble  from  the  soot,  but  results  in  checking 
the  draft. 

When  the  chimney  connection  is  run  straight  into  the  chimney 
it  should  project  inside  only  slightly,  as  unnecessary  obstruction  of 
the  flue  space  is  undesirable. 

The  work  which  has  thus  far  been  described  and  illustrated 
relates  chiefly  to  the  application  of  the  local  vent  to  residences,  dwell- 
ing houses,  apartment  houses  of  ordinary  size,  etc. 

For  larger  work  more  extensive  methods  are  necessary,  such  as' 
the  use  of  large  piping,  and  the  mechanical  supply  of  fresh  air  and 
exhausting  of  foul  air. 

In  the  case  of  public  toilet  rooms,  underground  comfort  sta- 
tions, etc.,  means  of  ventilation  on  a  large  scale  are  extremely  nec- 
essary, as  the  use  of  such  rooms  would  otherwise  result  in  a  public 
nuisance. 

The  difference  to  be  noted  in  the  atmosphere  of  public  toilet 
rooms  of  hotels,  for  instance,  which  are  provided  with  poor  light  and 


128  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

no  ventilation,  is  great  in  comparison  with  the  atmosphere  of  many 
of  our  modern,  well-appointed  toilet  rooms  of  hotels,  etc. 

It  has  become  a  matter  of  good  business  to  make  special  efifort 
and  outlay  in  securing  proper  ventilation  for  toilet  rooms  of  public 
buildings,  for  the  public  has  become  educated  to  the  point  where  they 
will  patronize  only  those  establishments  that  look  after  these  points. 

On  the  larger  w^ork  it  often  becomes  necessary  to  secure  greater 
motive  power  for  ventilating  purposes  than  the  heated  flue  is  able  to 
furnish. 

For  this  purpose  fans  are  largely  employed,  connected  as  shown 
in  Fig.  D.  Usually  an  exhaust  fan  is  used  to  withdraw  the  foul  air, 
and  another  fan  to  supply  fresh  air  to  the  fresh-air  ducts. 

This  class  of  w^ork  will  be  taken  up  again  in  connection  with  the 
subject  of  public  toilet  rooms,  as  also  the  local  venting  of  urinals. 


Plate  XIX 

BATH    ROOMS 


Bath   R<:^<:>m 


<SfacJt 


J7S  oi  z3    Veiz  /- 


L/-— 


BATH    ROOMS 

With  the  advent  of  modern  fixtures  and  modern  methods,  the 
bath  room  of  to-day  may  become,  with  a  comparatively  small  outlay, 
a  room  of  great  beauty,  and  when  it  may  be  installed  regardless  of 
cost,  it  may  become  a  place  of  almost  marvelous  beauty. 

No  other  part  of  the  plumbing  system  so  fully  illustrates  the 
many  advantages  which  the  open-plumbing  system  has  over  the 
closed  or  sheathed-in  system. 

No  one  attempts  to  make  a  comparison  of  the  old-time  sheathed- 
in  bath-room  work  with  that  of  the  present  day,  as  far  as  beauty  and 
artistic  effect  are  concerned.  Furthermore,  the  open  system  is  far 
more  sanitary. 

When  plumbing  fixtures  were  sheathed  in,  neither  light  nor  air 
could  circulate  about  them,  with  the  restilt  that  there  was  constantly 
a  musty,  if  not  foul,  odor  present.  The  sheathing  absorbed  more  or 
less  moisture  and  filth  from  the  careless  use  of  the  fixtures,  and  there 
was  abundant  opportunity  for  the  collection  of  dirt  in  crevices  and 
corners  in  the  use  of  sheathing. 

The  bath  room,  of  to-day  can  indeed  be  made  as  clean  and  whole- 
some as  the  parlor. 

The  connections  for  the  bath  room  shown  in  Fig.  A  of  Plate 
19  show  one  point  of  excellence  which  is  seldom  sought  for  by  the 
plumber  or  considered  by  the  architect  or  owner.  Each  fixture 
waste  has  a  separate  entrance  into  the  soil-pipe  line.  When  fixtures 
are  installed  under  such  conditions,  the  stoppage  of  one  fixture  can 
in  no  way  afifect  any  other  fixture.  It  will  be  of  interest  to  compare 
the  work  of  Fig.  A  with  that  of  Fig.  B.  In  the  latter  the  lavator}^ 
and  bath  are  connected  into  the  same  trap  below  the  floor.  Without 
doubt  this  method  often  saves  expense,  but  the  trap — any  trap,  in 
fact — is  almost  certain  to  be  stopped  up  at  some  time,  and  when 
this  occurs,  not  only  one  fixture  but  two  fixtures  are  afifected,  both 
remaining  out  of  use  until  the  trouble  is  repaired,  and  thus  causing 
a  double  annoyance.  In  addition,  the  trap  which  serves  two  fixtures 
must  become  stopped  more  often  than  the  trap  which  serves  but  one. 

131 


132  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

Furthermore,  quite  a  length  of  waste  must  be  run  from  the  lavatory 
before  it  enters  the  trap,  and  the  filth  of  the  interior  of  this  trap  is 
bound  to  give  off  impure  odors  into  the  bath  room.  To  prevent  this 
result  as  far  as  possible,  each  trap  should  be  placed  as  close  to  its 
fixture  as  circumstances  will  allow. 

The  work  of  Fig.  A  is  free  from  these  troubles,  which  arise  from 
not  entering  each  waste  separately  into  the  stack. 

There  is  another  serious  objection  to  be  found  with  the  work 
shown  in  Fig.  B. 

The  waste  after  leaving  the  drum  trap,  instead  of  being  con- 
nected into  a  Y-branch  on  the  soil-pipe  line,  is  connected  into  the 
horizontal  arm  of  the  lead  bend.  Now,  if  a  stoppage  occurs  in  the 
lead  bend,  every  fixture  in  the  bath  room  is  immediately  put  out  of 
use,  and  the  waste  under  these  conditions  often  sets  back  into  the 
bath  tub  and  water  closet.  A  less  number  of  fittings,  and  doubtless 
less  labor,  is  necessary  in  constructing  such  work,  but  if  troubles  of 
the  nature  mentioned  do  not  sometimes  occur,  it  is  simply  a  matter 
of  good  fortune. 

Usually  a  slight  additional  outlay  would  have  made  such  evils 
unnecessary.  The  wiping  of  the  waste  into  the  lead  bend  is  also 
accompanied  by  the  liability  that  sharp  points  of  solder  have  run 
through  inside  the  bend,  forming  projections  against  which  paper 
and  other  material  may  catch  and  form  the  starting  point  of  a  stop- 
page. The  only  favorable  thing  about  this  lead-bend  connection  is 
that  in  the  present  instance  it  is  made  on  the  horizontal  arm  rather 
than  into  the  heel  of  the  bend,  where  the  connection  would  be  much 
more  likely  to  be  followed  by  trouble. 

It  is  a  fact  that  many  cities  operating  under  strict  plumbing 
ordinances,  and  maintaining  a  high  standard  of  plumbing  construc- 
tion, allow  both  the  lead-bend  waste  connection  and  the  use  of  a 
single  trap  to  serve  the  lavatory  and  bath.  It  is  also  strange  that 
certain  cities  will  allow  the  kitchen  sink  and  laundry  tubs  to  be 
served  by  a  single  trap,  and  that  occasionally  one  of  these  connec- 
tions is  allowed  and  the  other  prohibited. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  plumber  is  often  at  fault  in 
allowing  such  connections  to  be  made.  However,  it  must  also  be 
stated  that  it  is  often  almost  impossible  to  gain  a  separate  entrance 
for  each  of  the  three  fixtures,  owing  to  lack  of  working  space,  loca- 
tion of  fixtures,  shape  and  size  of  the  room,  etc. 


BATH    ROOMS  133 

Many  times  a  separate  entrance  can  be  provided  for  the  lava- 
tory, if  located  near  the  stack,  by  running  the  waste  back  to  the  wall 
and  using  a  half-S  trap,  as  shown  in  Fig.  A,  the  waste  fitting  coming 
so  much  above  the  other  fittings  as  not  to  interfere  in  any  way  with 
the  rest  of  the  connections. 

The  architect  could,  in  a  great  many  cases,  arrange  his  work  to 
a  great  deal  better  advantage  than  he  usually  does. 

For  instance,  the  fixtures,  with  a  little  study,  may  be  located  in 
such  a  way  that  the  advantages  just  mentioned  may  be  obtained. 
The  shape  and  location  of  the  bath  room,  the  location  of  pipes,  etc., 
may  usually  be  worked  out  so  that  the  plumbing  may  be  installed  to 
the  best  possible  advantage.  It  is  not  the  good  fortune  of  the  plumber 
often  to  work  from  plans  which  show  that  the  architect  has  given 
much  consideration  to,  or  has  much  knowledge  of,  the  requirements 
of  the  plumbing  system. 

The  plumber  often  finds,  for  instance,  that  in  order  to  run  the 
soil  pipe  as  shown  in  the  plans,  an  offset  on  the  vertical  line  must  be 
used,  which  is  always  detrimental.  He  also  finds,  especially  in  bath- 
room work,  that  he  must  cut  into  floor  timbers  and  into  uprights  in 
order  to  conceal  his  work,  and  indeed,  often  cut  through  timbers 
and  make  use  of  a  header  to  support  it ;  whereas,  if  the  architect  knew 
the  requirements  and  put  this  knowledge  into  his  work,  many  of  these 
difficulties  might  easily  be  avoided. 

The  vertical  soil  piping  may  sometimes  be  run  in  a  dark  closet 
adjacent  to  the  bath  room,  but  more  often  must  be  run  inside  a  nar- 
row partition,  or  exposed  to  view.  If  it  is  desired  to  conceal  the  soil 
pipe,  it  should  be  boxed  in,  but  the  front  boarding  should  be  put  up 
with  screws,  in  order  that  it  may  be  easily  and  quickly  taken  down 
when  repairs  or  changes  are  necessary  on  the  piping.  Unless  this 
provision  is  made,  lathing  and  plastering  must  be  cut  out. 


Plate  XX 

BATH    ROOMS 


P/af-z  ZO. 
O^nnzoriQfns    ton 

Bath     R<^<=>m 


F'9'  C. 


Q 


I2^02  2Z 


U^oirt  Sfoclz 


12^022^ 


C  ^2Z  C  er2Z22ZQ  VCTZ  f22zg 


BATH    ROOMS 

It  will  be  observed  that  all  the  waste  and  vent  connections  of 
the  bath-room  work  shown  in  Fig.  C  of  Plate  20  are  of  either 
wrought  or  cast  iron,  with  the  exception  of  traps,  their  short  con- 
nections, and  the  lead  bend.  This  is  the  style  of  construction  that  is 
rapidly  displacing  lead  work.  This  change  in  plumbing  construction 
is  without  doubt  as  it  should  be.  To  be  sure,  the  skill  of  the  expert 
lead  worker  is  no  longer  required  to  any  great  extent  on  a  large  part 
of  the  present-day  construction  work,  but  the  workman  of  to-day 
must  have  a  far  greater  knowledge  of  physics,  hydraulics,  and  many 
other  subjects  which  concerned  the  old  lead  worker  but  little. 

Whenever  a  fixture  is  located  at  a  greater  distance  than  6  ft. 
from  its  stack,  it  should  not  have  a  lead  waste.  The  chief  reason 
for  this  is  that  long  lines  of  lead  pipe  are  very  liable  to  sag,  thereby 
causing  traps  to  be  formed  on  the  waste  pipe. 

The  lavatory  in  Fig.  C  being  more  than  6  ft.  from  its  stack,  a 
line  of  cast-iron  pipe  is  run  to  it,  and  as  the  fixture  is  located  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  room  from  the  stack,  the  vent  is  carried  up  to 
the  floor  above,  and  then  run  over  to  the  main  line  of  vent,  a  course 
much  preferable  to  any  attempt  to  run  the  vent  around  the  sides  of 
the  room. 

The  latter  course  would  often  be  difficult,  as  it  would  generally 
be  necessary  to  expose  the  vent  to  view,  and  to  run  it  above  the 
height  of  the  fixture,  detracting  much  from  the  appearance  of  the 
bath  room.  If  obliged  to  run  the  vent  about  the  sides  of  the  room, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  use  nickel-plated  brass  pipe  in  order  to 
obtain  a  good-looking  piece  of  work.  The  vent  of  the  lavatory  is 
known  as  a  continuous  vent,  and  above  the  waste  fitting  should  be 
run  of  wrought-iron  pipe. 

Separate  entrance  for  the  bath  waste  is  obtained  into  the 
cast-iron  waste,  and  the  cleanout  in  the  end  of  this  horizontal  line 
amply  protects  it  in  the  event  of  stoppage.  The  main  vent  is  shown 
of  cast  iron,  also  the  vent  for  the  water  closet,  which  is  taken 
from  a  vented  T-Y,  while  the  vent  for  the  bath  trap  is  of  wrought 

137 


138  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

iron,  and  connected  to  the  cast-iron  piping  by  means  of  a  tapped 
fitting. 

Another  method  of  bath-room  connections  is  seen  in  Fig.  D. 
While  separate  entrances  into  the  stack  are  not  provided  for  the 
bath  and  lavatory,  the  connection  of  the  wastes  from  the  two  fixtures 
into  one  pipe  connected  to  its  own  waste  fitting  is  much  preferable  to 
the  method  shown  in  Fig.  B,  Plate  19.  Of  course  a  stoppage  might 
occur  between  the  junction  of  the  two  wastes  and  the  Y,  but  the 
chances  are  against  it.  Therefore  there  is  not  so  much  danger  of  a 
stoppage  afifecting  both  fixtures.  In  this  work  an  S-trap  is  used  for 
the  bath,  and  a  cleanout  to  the  floor  provided.  If  such  a  cleanout  is 
not  used,  the  flooring  over  the  trap  should  be  put  down  with  screws, 
in  order  that  the  trap  may  be  made  as  accessible  as  possible  in  the 
event  of  cleaning. 

Fig.  D  shows  a  bath  room  under  conditions  often  to  be  found, 
that  is,  there  are  no  fixtures  wasting  into  the  same  stack,  either  above 
or  below  the  bath  room. 

Under  such  conditions  no  main  vent  line  is  required,  the  fixture 
vents  being  connected  directly  into  the  stack  above  the  highest  fix- 
ture, and  receiving  their  air  supply  through  the  roof  extension  of 
the  stack.  That  part  of  the  stack  above  the  entrance  of  the  highest 
fixture  waste  is  called  the  soil  vent  in  the  case  of  a  soil  stack,  and  a 
waste  vent  in  the  case  of  a  waste  stack. 

In  the  present  instance,  there  being  no  fixtures  either  above  or 
below  the  bath  room,  there  are  no  conditions  present  which  might 
cause  the  siphonage  of  the  water-closet  trap,  and  there  is  conse- 
quently no  necessity  of  venting  it,  particularly  as  it  is  located  on  the 
top  floor,  close  to  the  roof  connection.  Under  these  conditions  the 
only  reason  for  venting  a  water  closet  would  be  that  the  fixture  was 
located  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  stack,  in  which  case  vent- 
ing might  be  desirable.  The  question  may  arise  as  to  the  necessity 
of  venting  the  other  fixtures  of  Fig.  D.  In  the  case  of  these  two 
fixtures  conditions  are  somewhat  different,  for  the  water-closet  waste 
enters  the  stack  above  the  entrance  of  the  waste  from  the  bath  and 
lavatory,  and  is  of  sufficient  volume  to  make  the  possibility  of  siphon- 
age  of  these  fixture  traps  strong  enough  to  demand  venting,  espe- 
cially as  there  is  an  additional  danger  that  the  waste  from  either 
the  bath  or  lavatory  may  exert  siphonic  influence  on  the  other.  If, 
however,  the  lavatory  entered  the  stack  above  the  entrance  of  the 


BATH    ROOMS  •  139 

water  closet,  through  a  half-S  trap,  there  would  usually  be  little  dan- 
ger of  the  siphonage  of  its  trap,  and  consequent!}^  small  necessity 
for  venting  it. 

In  the  several  illustrations  of  bath  rooms  shown  in  Plates  19, 
20,  21,  and  22,  no  other  fixtures  than  the  three  common  fixtures, 
water  closet,  bath,  and  lavatory,  are  shown. 

In  the  modern,  well-appointed  bath  rooms  to  be  found  in  many 
tip-to-date  residences  of  the  wealthy,  however,  many  other  fixtures 
and  devices  for  the  comfort  of  the  household  are  to  be  found.  Many 
of  these  bath  rooms  contain  as  many  as  six  or  eight  different  plumb- 
ing fixtures.  Among  these  additional  fixtures  may  be  named  the 
foot  bath,  sitz  bath,  child's  bath,  shower  bath,  and  bidet.  The  use 
of  two  lavatories  is  occasionally  noticed,  the  pedestal  lavatory  of 
porcelain  making  an  excellent  appearance. 

In  addition  to  the  above  fixtures,  the  use  of  shower  baths  in 
connection  with  the  bath  tub,  and  showers  in  connection  w4th  the 
lavatory,  is  much  in  vogue. 

Mirrors  over  the  lavatories,  porcelain  stools,  bath  seats,  and  the 
various  nickel  soap  dishes,  sponge  holders,  etc.,  also  add  much  to  the 
general  style  of  the  bath  room. 

Nearly  all  high-grade  bath  rooms  are  now  furnished  with  porce- 
lain fixtures,  including  the  lavatory,  a  very  small  amount  of  marble 
now  being  used  for  lavatory  work,  as  compared  with  its  use  a  few 
years  ago.  The  porcelain-lined  bath  so  generally  used  in  bath  rooms 
well  appointed,  but  not  of  the  most  expensive  type,  is  generally 
painted  some  dull  color,  leaving  it  to  be  finished  and  decorated  in 
the  prevailing  style  of  the  room. 

For  the  bath  room,  nothing  neater  can  be  devised  than  pure 
white,  and,  if  decoration  is  desired,  a  narrow  gilt  band  may  be  used. 

Tiling  is  used  extensively  in  up-to-date  bath-room  work,  includ- 
ing floor,  walls,  and  ceiling. 

When  the  tiling  does  not  cover  the  entire  interior  of  the  room, 
it  is  generally  carried  up  on  the  walls  to  a  distance  of  four  to  six 
feet  from  the  floor,  and  capped  with  a  half  round  or  O.  G.  molding. 

A  very  neat  innovation  in  bath  tubs  is  the  porcelain  or  porcelain- 
lined  tub,  sheathed  on  its  exposed  sides  with  tiling  to  conform  to  the 
prevailing  style  of  the  room. 


Plate  XXI 

BATH    ROOMS 


Both    Roorn 


P/a/-e   2/, 


a.y 


r'9-  ^- 


C25/®  e  c  iol    TVoc^/-  e 


K>t 


<i>jQ>ec2o2 


Ve2^  /e  d 


^ 


BATH    ROOMS 

The  bath-room  connections  shown  in  Figs.  E  and  F,  Plate  21, 
are  designed  to  show  the  use  of  various  special  waste  and  vent  fit- 
tings, which  are  possibly  more  useful  in  bath-room  work  than  on 
any  other  part  of  the  plumbing  system. 

The  water-closet  w^aste  fitting  of  Fig.  F  is  along  the  same  line 
as  the  vented  T-Y  of  Fig.  C,  Plate  20,  but  is  a  better  fitting  for  bath- 
room work,  inasmuch  as  the  branch  is  taken  spirally  into  the  side 
of  the  fitting,  allowing  the  fixture  to  set  closer  to  the  wall.  The 
water  closet  should  set  as  close  to  the  wall  as  practicable,  as  it  is 
less  in  the  way,  and  less  liable  to  damage. 

The  water  closet  is  vented  from  a  hub  on  the  waste  fitting. 

The  waste  fitting  of  the  water  closet  of  Fig.  E  is  of  similar  pat- 
tern, with  a  special  hub  for  receiving  the  waste  of  other  fixtures. 
The  work  of  Fig.  E  is  almost  entirely  of  iron  pipe. 

The  triple  fittings  on  the  waste  and  vent  lines  are  made  in  vari- 
ous lengths  and  with  difTerent  numbers  of  openings.  By  the  use  of 
these  fittings  the  vents  are  so  connected  to  the  several  traps  that  there 
is  little  danger  of  stoppage  of  the  vent  openings. 

The  fitting  shown  on  the  main  vent  line  of  Fig.  E  is  a  very 
useful  one,  and  may  be  obtained  with  a  short  or  long  arm,  with  or 
without  the  additional  vent  hub.  In  the  construction  of  many  houses 
the  plumbing  is  centralized  so  that  the  bath  room  and  the  kitchen  sink 
may  be  served  by  the  same  stack.  This  custom  is  a  common  one, 
and  is  recognized  by  the  triple  fittings,  which  have  the  third  hub 
for  the  use  of  the  kitchen  sink.  It  may  also  be  used  for  a  lavatory 
in  a  room  adjacent  to  the  bath  room. 

The  work  of  Fig.  F  is  not  entirely  of  iron  or  made  up  entirely 
of  special  fittings,  but  is  intended  to  show  the  use  of  some  of  these 
special  fittings  on  ordinary  work.  The  special  fittings  shown  are 
very  few  in  number  compared  to  the  total  number  of  these  fittings. 
They  may  be  procured  for  almost  any  special  purpose,  or  to  fit  into 
almost  any  place. 

These  fittings  are  usually  more  expensive  than  ordinary  fittings, 

143 


144  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

but  the  practiced  eye  will  easily  see  how  useful  they  are,  and  how 
much  work  they  save,  for  instance,  in  the  matter  of  wiped  and 
caulked  joints,  which  are  comparatively  few,  considering  the  amount 
of  work  covered. 

The  use  of  special  fittings  accomplishes  two  things:  it  reduces 
the  number  of  caulked  and  wiped  joints,  and  it  generally  allows  the 
use  of  continuous  vents,  two  very  important  features. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  lighting  and  venti- 
lating of  the  bath  room.  The  local  vent,  which  is  described  under 
Plate  l8,  is  of  very  great  value  in  maintaining  wholesome  conditions 
in  the  bath  room,  as  it  not  only  ventilates  the  water  closet  while  in 
use,  but  ventilates  the  entire  room  at  all  times. 

In  addition  to  getting  rid  of  the  foul  air,  a  good  supply  of  fresh 
air  should  be  furnished  the  bath  room. 

Exterior  lighting  should  always  be  provided.  This  may  always 
be  done  in  detached  buildings,  but  in  buildings  that  are  built  close  up 
to  the  walls  of  other  buildings  it  is  often  a  difficult  matter.  In  the  bath 
or  toilet  room  receiving  light  from  a  light  shaft,  the  air  is  usually 
lifeless  and  musty,  and  in  such  cases  all  precautions  possible  in  the 
matter  of  ventilation  should  be  taken,  and  the  room  and  fixtures 
kept  as  clean  and  wholesome  as  possible.  The  existence  of  disagree- 
able odors  in  the  bath  room  may  often  be  traced  to  a  source  over 
which  the  plumber  has  no  control,  as  it  is  as  likely  to  occur  in  the 
plumbing  system  which  is  absolutely  perfect  as  in  the  poorly  con- 
structed system. 

This  trouble  sometimes  arises  from  the  use  of  highly  scented 
toilet  soaps,  toilet  water,  etc.,  which  are  much  in  use  in  the  private 
bath  room,  and  but  seldom  used  in  public  toilet  rooms. 

When  mixed  with  grease,  and  waste  filled  with  impurities 
emanating  from  the  skin,  these  strong  perfumes  give  rise  to  heavy, 
nauseous  odors,  which  are  extremely  offensive  and  which  are  often 
mistaken  for  escaping  sewer  gas.  Most  of  the  trouble  comes  from 
the  slime  in  the  traps  and  waste  connections,  but  a  soru'ce  which  is 
not  often  taken  into  account  is  the  patent  overflow  of  the  lavatory 
bowl.  The  fact  that  this  is  a  prolific  source  for  the  same  trouble, 
makes  it  apparent  that  the  same  evil  often  arises  in  the  use  of  the 
private  lavatory  in  sleeping  rooms,  where  the  presence  of  foul  odors 
is  especially  unhealthful. 

To  remedy  this  evil,  the  strainers  should  be  removed  from  the 


BATH    ROOMS  145 

bath  tub  and  lavatory  bowl,  and  the  waste  connections  and  traps 
thoroughly  cleaned  out  with  potash  or  washing  soda  and  boiling 
water.  As  to  cleaning  out  the  overflow,  the  bowl  should  be  taken 
down  and  the  overflow  washed  out  in  the  same  way.  The  traps  and 
waste  connections  may  be  kept  clean  by  occasionally  using  the  alkali 
in  the  bath  tub  and  lavatory,  and  turning  on  the  hot  water. 

If  this  trouble  should  occur  in  the  bath  room  of  Fig.  B,  Plate 
19,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  long,  unprotected  lavatory  waste  would 
be  the  particular  point  to  look  to,  as  there  is  a  large  amount  of  sur- 
face here,  which  must  constantly  emit  odors  into  the  room.  This 
point  further  emphasizes  the  fact  that  each  fixture  should  have  its 
own  individual  trap,  located  as  close  as  possible  to  the  fixture. 

A  point  which  may  properly  be  mentioned  in  connection  with 
bath-room  work  relates  to  the  painting  of  exposed  soil  piping. 

When  soil  pipe  is  exposed  in  the  bath  room  it  is  unsightly  at 
best,  and  to  give  it  the  best  possible  appearance  it  should  be  painted 
in  the  prevailing  color  of  the  room. 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  cover  it  with  several  coats  of  paint,  as  the 
tar  wall  soon  strike  through  and  show. 

The  paint  should  not  be  applied  until  several  coats  of  shellac, 
such  as  is  used  by  pattern  makers,  are  applied.  The  shellac  will  pre- 
vent the  tar  from  striking  through. 

Another  point  which  may  be  of  value  is  in  relation  to  the  clean- 
ing of  marble  and  porcelain,  which  often  become  soiled  with  rust, 
oil,  and  other  stains,  which  may  generally  be  removed  by  a  mixture 
of  2  parts  of  soda,  i  of  pumice,  and  i  of  powdered  chalk  or  whiting. 
These  materials  should  be  sifted  and  water  added  to  form  a  paste, 
which  should  be  applied  to  the  soiled  surface  and  allowed  to  remain 
for  a  niimber  of  hours,  then  washed  oft"  with  soap  and  water. 


Plate  XXII 

BATH    ROOMS 


R/a^e22. 


Ve.isf'S  =/•  Co'sf  Is^^j^ 


r^zzQJs, 


f/p.  6. 


^°t/ 


'■S- 


n 


2d>  <^J^  -  ^^JbJz  P2S- 


BATH    ROOMS 

A  SPECIAL  feature  of  the  bath  room  of  Fig.  G,  Plate  22,  is  that, 
with  the  exception  of  the  water-closet  bend,  no  part  of  the  work  is 
of  lead. 

Fig.  C,  Plate  20,  and  Fig.  E,  Plate  21,  also  show  bath-room 
connections  which  are  of  similar  general  construction,  but  in  which 
special  and  expensive  fittings  are  used. 

The  work  in  Fig.  G,  it  will  be  noted,  is  performed  by  the  use 
of  common  fittings  carried  in  stock  by  all  dealers.  The  concealed 
work  may  be  of  either  wrought  or  cast  iron. 

If  of  wrought  iron,  the  pipe  should  be  galvanized.  The  traps 
for  the  bath  and  lavatory  should  be  of  brass.  Another  feature  of 
this  work  is  that  each  trap  is  served  by  a  continuous  vent.  Several 
references  have  been  made  to  continuous  venting,  a  full  description 
of  which  is  to  be  found  under  Plates  26,  27,  and  28. 

In  Fig.  H  is  shown  a  bath  room  the  fixtures  of  which  are 
unvented. 

While  work  of  this  kind  is  not  allowed  in  many  of  our  large 
towns  and  cities,  it  may  be,  and  is  used  to  a  large  extent  in  country 
districts  and  in  the  smaller  towns. 

If  the  work  is  installed  in  the  right  manner,  it  may  usually  be 
made  quite  safe,  even  though  unvented.  In  the  first  place,  the  bath 
room  is  usually  on  the  upper  floor  and  close  to  the  roof  pipe,  features 
which  are  of  advantage,  as  the  supply  of  air  through  the  soil  vent  is 
quick  and  direct.  There  is  practically  no  danger  that  the  lavatory 
and  bath  will  exert  siphonic  influence  on  the  water-closet  trap,  but 
under  the  right  conditions  the  flushing  of  the  water  closet  may  exert 
such  influence  on  them.  In  the  case  of  the  bath  tub,  it  is  necessary 
usually  to  carry  its  waste  into  the  stack  below  the  lead  bend.  In 
order  to  give  all  possible  protection  to  this  fixture,  its  trap  should 
be  of  the  drum  pattern  or  of  some  non-siphonable  make,  and  the 
waste  outlet  into  the  stack  should  be  as  short  as  possible.  The  lava- 
tory may  best  be  located  so  that  its  waste  may  enter  the  stack  above 

the  entrance  of  the  water  closet.     Here  it  receives  the  most  direct 

149 


I50  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

supply  of  air  through  the  soil  vent,  and  if  a  non-siphonable  trap  is 
used  there  will  be  practically  no  danger  from  siphonage. 

The  same  general  precautions  should  be  taken  with  other  plumb- 
ing fixtures  of  the  house.  On  an  unvented  system  it  is  poor  policy 
to  locate  a  fixture  in  the  cellar,  close  to  the  foot  of  a  stack,  and  wast- 
ing into  the  horizontal  line,  as  the  liability  of  siphonage  under  such 
conditions  is  fully  as  great  as  at  any  other  point  in  the  system. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  bath  rooms,  it  will  be  of  interest  to 
many  readers,  no  doubt,  to  study  the  fixtures  and  trimmings  for  an 
up-to-date,  high-grade  bath  room. 

The  water  closet  should  be  of  the  siphon- jet  style,  and  of  porce- 
lain, and  should  have  nickel-plated  flush  and  supply  pipes,  with  flush 
tank  finished  in  the  natural  wood,  or  enameled  to  suit  the  finish  and 
decorations  of  the  room.  The  low  tank  is  at  the  present  time  more 
popular  than  the  high  tank,  and  the  flush  valve,  doing  away  entirely 
with  the  flush  tank,  bids  fair  to  become  more  popular  than  either. 

The  flush  valve  may  be  exposed  to  view  or  concealed  in  the  wall 
behind  the  water  closet. 

The  bath  tub  should  be  of  porcelain,  or  at  least  porcelain  lined, 
and  should  not  be  less  than  5  or  5^  ft.  in  length,  and  provided  with 
nickel-plated  waste  and  supply  fittings.  The  bath  may  be  furnished 
with  a  shower  and  shower  curtain. 

There  is  a  wide  choice  in  the  selection  of  the  bath.  The  effect 
of  the  solid  porcelain  tub  is  massive,  especially  if  its  base  rests  upon 
the  floor  instead  of  upon  legs.  The  only  decoration  that  the  bath 
should  have  is  a  narrow  plain  band  or  other  decoration  a  short  dis- 
tance below  the  rim. 

In  lavatories,  also,  there  is  a  wide  range.  Porcelain  is  prefer- 
able for  fine  work,  and  the  one-piece  lavatory  of  enameled  cast  iron 
comes  next. 

If  of  porcelain,  it  should  be  furnished  with  porcelain  legs  and 
back,  A  very  artistic  fixture  is  the  oval  pedestal  lavatory,  which  is 
massive  and  looks  well  with  a  heav}/  bath.  The  lavatory  is  much 
improved  with  a  mirror  following  in  its  shape  the  general  style  of 
the  lavatory.  Nickel-plated  legs  or  brackets  may  support  the  lava- 
tory, but  do  not  appear  to  such  advantage  as  the  white  porcelain 
legs.  White  is  by  all  means  the  color  for  the  bath  room.  It  is  cool 
and  clean  in  appearance,  and  obliges  frequent  attention,  as  any  dust 
or  dirt  that  gathers  shows  plainly. 


BATH    ROOMS  151 

Some  fine  bath  rooms  are  now  provided  with  fixtures  wliich  are 
supphed  with  water  in  such  a  way  that  no  metal  shows  in  connection 
with  any  of  the  exposed  plumbing,  the  entire  effect  being  of  white. 

The  shower  should  be  provided  with  a  porcelain  or  porcelain- 
lined  receptor  resting  on  the  i^oor,  and  nickel-plated  combination 
needle  and  shower  bath,  with  shower  curtain. 

The  bidet  is  not  in  common  use,  but  is  to  be  found  in  some  of 
the  best-appointed  bath  rooms.  It  should  correspond  in  style  and 
decorations  to  the  water  closet. 

The  foot  and  sitz  baths  should  correspond  closely  in  their  mate- 
rial, style,  and  decoration  to  the  bath  tub.  The  best  manufacturers 
now  carry  the  same  style,  design,  and  decoration  right  through  the 
line  of  bath-room  fixtures,  so  that  there  is  no  reason  why  all  the 
fittings  of  the  bath  room  should  not  be  in  keeping. 


Plate  XXIII 

POOR    PRACTICES    IN    PLUMBING    CON 

STRUCTION 


l/ar/  ^ us   Examp/e  s 


R^ 


CTaiTTznej- 


■a* 


^'?6. 


2Z>^9. 


7 


^ 


'     '   ''    -    ^  -Y'   -     '     ^  -    il  r-    ^   •    ^'  t    V  «  .      J'     I— *— ^   ^      X      %  '^_    ^  ■  l"^    .     -*  ^   I   <     - 


A 


«]==ID 


f .,.  I    \fi^^ 


€]^IIIB 


POOR    PRACTICES    IN    PLUMBING    CONSTRUCTION 

In  order  that  the  plumbing  system  may  be  absolutely  safe,  count- 
less points  of  apparently  small  importance  must  be  observed.  The 
difference  between  a  strictly  high-class  plumbing  system  and  one  of 
medium  or  poor  quality  is  to  be  found  largely  in  the  observance  or 
non-observance  of  the  small  points.  In  Plate  23  are  to  be  seen  some 
of  the  small  points  which  are  often  disregarded.  The  instances  of 
error  to  be  seen  in  the  illustration  are  not  novel  or  to  be  rarely  seen, 
but  are  constantly  being  made  by  mechanics  who  should  or  do  know 
better.  These  errors  are  often  made  in  ignorance,  and  it  must  be 
admitted  that  they  are  also  often  made,  especially  on  contract  work, 
in  order  that  the  work  may  be  made  to  pay  bigger  profits. 

Next  to  the  main  trap,  a  fresh-air  inlet  should  have  been  pro- 
vided, as  the  main  trap  should  never  be  without  it.  If  the  nearest 
waste  stack  is  near  enough  10  the  main  trap,  it  would  relieve  any 
air  lock,  but  is  in  no  sense  a  fresh-air  inlet,  so  long  as  waste  enters  it. 

The  two  stacks  enter  the  house  drain  through  tee  fittings, 
whereas  the  connection  should  always  be  made  with  a  Y-branch  and 
eighth  bend. 

Fixture  No.  9  should  waste  into  a  Y. 

Tees  should  be  used  on  no  part  of  the  drainage  system,  and 
T-Ys  only  on  vertical  lines. 

The  continuation  of  the  house  drain  beyond  the  soil  stack 
forms  a  dead  end.  The  main  vent  for  the  soil  stack  should  reenter 
the  stack  below  the  T-Y  on  the  first  floor,  and  a  trap  vent  from  fix- 
ture No.  9  run  over  into  it.  The  ending  of  this  main  vent  in  the 
vent  of  No.  9  allows  no  opportunity  for  collections  of  scale  and  rust 
to  drain  out  of  the  main  vent. 

The  2-in.  waste  stack  should  have  been  increased  to  4  in.  before 
passing  through  the  roof.  No  stack  of  less  size  than  4  in.  should 
pass  through  the  roof. 

Taking  up  the  fixtures  in  consecutive  order,  according  to  their 
numbers,  the  trap  vent  of  No.  i  should  be  taken  from  the  lead  bend, 
and  not  from  the  vent  horn  of  the  closet  bowl,  and  the  local  vent 

15s 


156  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

from  the  same  fixture  should  not  drop  after  leaving  the  closet,  but 
should  pitch  upward  throughout  its  course.  No.  2  should  have  sepa- 
rate entrance  into  the  stack  through  a  Y-branch,  instead  of  being 
connected  into  the  lead  bend,  the  proper  course  allov^ing  a  shorter 
and  more  direct  connection.  The  vent  from  No.  2  should  have 
entered  the  vent  from  No.  i  above  the  top  of  No.  2.  As  it  is  now 
connected,  if  a  stoppage  occurs  on  the  waste  of  No.  2,  waste  from 
this  fixture  will  run  ofT  through  its  vent,  thence  through  the  vent  of 
No.  I,  and  discharge  into  No.  i. 

Fixtures  No.  3  and  No.  4  should  be  trapped  and  vented  inde- 
pendently, and  be  entered  separately  into  the  stack,  or  into  the  open- 
ings of  a  Y  caulked  into  the  Y  already  in  use. 

The  horizontal  vent  from  Nos.  5  and  6  pitches  in  the  wrong 
direction.  Vent  pipes  should  always  pitch  upward  after  leaving  the 
trap.  The  vent  connection  of  No.  5  should  have  been  made  into 
the  horizontal  arm  of  the  bend  rather  than  into  the  vertical  arm, 
as  the  latter  presents  greater  opportunity  for  the  collection  of  refuse 
in  the  opening  of  the  vent  into  the  bend. 

The  waste  from  No.  6  should  have  a  separate  entrance  into  the 
stack,  but  if  it  must  be  connected  into  the  lead  bend  it  should  be  con- 
nected into  the  upper  part  of  the  horizontal  arm,  as  the  opening  of 
the  waste  into  the  heel  of  the  bend  is  in  such  a  position  that  soil  and 
other  refuse  matter  may  drop  directly  into  it  in  passing  through 
the  bend. 

The  local  vent  from  No.  5  enters  the  chimney  at  the  second  floor, 
and  at  a  point  below  the  highest  opening  into  the  chimney.  When 
all  local  vents  are  not  entered  above  the  highest  chimney  opening 
there  is  danger  that  foul  odors  carried  in  the  vent  may  enter  rooms 
into  which  openings  in  the  chimney  communicate.  Fixtures  No.  7  and 
No.  8  are  double  trapped.  The  waste  from  No.  8  should  be  discon- 
nected from  the  trap  of  No.  7,  and  entered  separately  into  the  stack, 
or  at  least  connected  to  the  waste  from  No.  7  close  to  the  point  at 
which  it  enters  the  stack.  Numerous  errors  might  be  mentioned 
which  do  not  appear  on  Plate  23.  Some  of  these  errors  are  the  fol- 
lowing. Earthenware  house  sewers  are  sometimes  continued  inside 
the  foundation  wall,  and  the  house  drain  connected  to  it  by  means  of 
a  cement  joint. 

Cleanouts  are  occasionally  used  which  depend  for  a  tight  joint 
upon  the  use  of  a  ring  of  putty. 


POOR   PRACTICES   IN   PLUMBING   CONSTRUCTION      157 

Drainage  is  allowed  to  enter  the  fresh-air  inlet,  and  the  latter  is 
often  constructed  of  too  small  pipe. 

By-passes  are  a  very  common  form  of  error,  and  this  particular 
error  often  occurs  in  the  connection  of  the  bath  overflow  to  the 
outlet  side  of  the  bath  trap,  the  proper  connection  being  into  the 
inlet  to  the  trap.  When  thus  connected  the  trap  is  practically  short- 
circuited,  gases  and  odors  passing  from  the  waste  pipe  through  the 
overflow  and  out  into  the  room.  In  the  absence  of  the  main  trap,  a 
by-pass  means  that  direct  communication  exists  between  the  house 
and  the  sewer.  Much  poor  work  is  to  be  found  in  connection  with 
refrigerator  work.  Refrigerators  are  sometimes  found  connected 
directly  into  the  drainage  system  without  a  trap,  and  very  often 
found  connected  directly  into  the  drainage  system  through  a  trap, 
which  is  not  much  better  than  the  first-named  connection.  Local 
vents  may  be  found  connected  into  main  back-vent  lines,  and  trap 
vents  into  flues.  The  blind  vent  is  a  deception  also  often  practiced. 
It  consists  in  running  the  trap  vent  back  to  the  wall,  or  through 
the  wall,  and  plugging  the  end,  no  connection  being  made  into  the 
main  vent.  This  is  not  so  bad  in  its  results  as  the  blind  vent  with 
an  open  end,  which  is  also  to  be  found,  and  through  which  direct 
communication  with  the  sewer  exists.  The  blind  vent  has  every 
appearance  of  being  honest  work,  and  is  no  more  than  open  fraud. 
It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  opportunities  for  error  are  great,  and 
it  behooves  the  owner  and  inmate  of  the  house  to  know  right  from 
wrong  in  plumbing  construction. 

The  instances  of  poor  practice  in  plumbing  construction  to  be 
noted  in  Plate  23  are  self-evident  to  the  person  who  has  a  knowledge 
of  the  subject  of  plumbing.  They  are  errors  which  the  plumbing 
inspector  should  not  pass  over.  At  the  same  time  there  is  not  an 
error  to  be  found  on  this  plate  which  is  of  an  exaggerated  nature, 
and  which  does  not  often  appear. 

Indeed,  some  of  the  practices  which  have  been  criticised  as 
errors  are  not  looked  upon,  under  some  plumbing  ordinances,  as  in 
any  way  out  of  character. 

For  instance,  the  practice  of  connecting  the  waste  from  the  lava- 
tory, as  in  fixture  No.  2,  into  the  lead  bend,  is  a  method  allowed  in 
many  cities  which  boast  of  strict  plumbing  ordinances. 

Poor  practices  are  not  alone  confined  to  the  methods  of  making 
connections,  but  appear  in  various  other  ways. 


158  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

The  use  of  inferior  material  is  a  very  common  matter,  and  is 
to  be  met  in  connection  with  plumbing  construction  at  almost  every 
point. 

The  use  of  light  cast-iron  soil  pipe  instead  of  extra-heavy  pipe 
is  an  instance,  as  also  the  use  of  very  light  weights  of  lead  pipe,  lead 
traps,  bends,  etc. 

The  use  of  light  lead  has  reached  such  a  point  that  much  of  that 
used  on  cheap  work  is  entirely  unfit  for  its  purpose,  inasmuch  as  it 
is  so  thin  that  it  can  withstand  very  little  rough  usage.  In  this  con- 
nection it  may  be  stated  that  one  of  the  advantages  in  the  rapid  dis- 
placing of  lead  pipe,  traps,  etc.,  is  the  fact  that  stiff er  and  more 
durable  materials  are  taking  the  place  of  lead. 

Many  other  instances  might  be  named  of  the  use  of  inferior 
materials,  such  as  cheaply  constructed  brass  work  of  poor  metal, 
tanks  lined  with  metal  of  the  thinnest  quality,  fixtures  full  of  imper- 
fections, etc. 

These  results  have  been  reached  very  largely  owing  to  the  keen 
competition  of  recent  years. 

It  is  true  that  plumbing  construction  can  be  made  possibly  more 
deceptive  than  any  other  branch  of  building  construction.  One  rea- 
son for  this  is  the  fact  that  such  a  large  part  of  the  work  is  concealed. 
Frequently,  to  jucige  from  the  neat  appearance  of  fixtures,  with  their 
bright  nickel  work,  the  plumbing  system  must  be  an  excellent  one, 
whereas  in  reality  it  may  be  of  the  poorest  description,  for  the  con- 
cealed work,  which  is  generally  the  most  important  from  a  sanitary 
standpoint,  may  be  installed  in  any  but  a  sanitary  manner. 


Plate  XXIV 

"  ROUGHING-IN  "— USE    OF    CLEANOUTS 


"  ROUGHING-IN  " 

That  part  of  the  work  on  the  plumbing  system  known  as  the 
''  roughing-in  "'  is  shown  in  Plate  24. 

As  will  be  noted,  when  the  work  has  progressed  to  this  point, 
all  soil  piping  has  been  run,  from  a  point  10  ft.  outside  the  founda- 
tion, through  the  cellar,  and  all  stacks  run  up  through  the  roof,  their 
vent  stacks  also  run  and  completed,  all  waste  fittings  and  vent  fit- 
tings on  mains  inserted,  and  all  branch  fixture  wastes  and  vents 
completed  as  far  as  possible.  In  the  roughing,  the  fresh-air  inlet  is 
included,  all  cleanouts  on  the  soil  piping,  rain  leaders  if  they  are  to 
enter  the  drainage  system  inside  the  cellar,  all  floor  and  yard 
drains,  etc. 

In  fact,  when  the  roughing  is  complete,  little  should  remain  to 
be  done  before  the  fixtures  are  set  in  place.  The  water  test  is  gen- 
erally applied  to  the  plumbing  at  this  point.  This,  when  properly 
applied,  is  a  most  thorough  test,  and  a  test  which  cannot  be  applied 
after  the  walls  are  plastered. 

Therefore,  in  the  roughing,  just  as  much  of  the  work  should  be 
included  as  possible,  in  order  that  as  much  of  the  piping  and  as  many 
of  the  joints  as  possible  may  be  tested  with  hydraulic  pressure. 

Therefore,  all  fixture  wastes  and  vents  should  be  completed  if 
practicable,  or  brought  as  near  completion  as  possible. 

The  vent  for  the  water  closet  may  almost  always  be  completed, 
unless  nickel  is  to  be  used.  Traps  that  are  located  linder  floors  may 
usually  be  placed  in  position,  inlet  connections  made  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  outlet  into  the  stack  completed.  All  ferrule  connec- 
tions, whether  on  the  vent  or  on  the  drainage  system,  should  be  made 
before  the  roughing  can  be  considered  complete.  It  will  be  noted 
that  sizes  for  all  pipes  in  the  plumbing  system  of  Fig.  24  are  given, 
these  sizes  corresponding  to  the  sizes  demanded  in  most  plumbing 
ordinances. 

In  the  case  of  the  kitchen  sink,  however,  some  ordinances  now 

require  a  2-in.  waste  instead  of  i^  in.,  a  requirement  which  is  in 

the  line  of  good  practice. 

161 


i62  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

When  the  fixture  wastes  are  roughed  in,  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  long  runs  of  lead  pipe  beneath  floors  are  properly 
supported. 

If  not  supported,  the  lead  pipe  is  very  sure  to  sag,  thus  forming 
traps  in  the  waste.  The  best  method  is  to  support  straight  runs  of 
lead  waste  on  boards,  properly  secured. 

Fixture  wastes  of  greater  length  than  6  ft.  should  always  be  run 
of  more  rigid  material  than  lead,  either  of  cast  or  galvanized  wrought 
iron  or  of  brass. 

As  elsewhere  noted,  nothing  but  coated  cast-iron  pipe  should 
ever  be  used  underground,  as  the  action  of  the  moisture  of  the  earth 
is  ver}^  harmful  to  wrought-iron  or  steel  pipe,  and  also  to  unprotected 
cast-iron  pipe.  There  is  really  no  necessity  for  coating  cast-iron  pipe 
that  is  not  buried,  with  tar  or  asphaltum,  for,  excepting  when  under- 
ground, there  is  rarely  any  harmful  action  that  takes  place. 

CLEANOUTS 

The  connection  shown  on  the  sewer  side  of  the  main  trap  in 
Plate  24  is  an  excellent  one,  and  is  a  practice  now  demanded  wher- 
ever possible  by  many  plumbing  ordinances. 

The  chief  value  of  such  a  connection  is  that  it  allows  a  cleanout 
to  be  used  in  the  end  of  the  Y-branch  into  which  the  main  trap 
discharges. 

This  cleanout  controls  the  straight  run  of  house  drain  into  the 
house  sewer,  and  a  considerable  length  of  the  latter,  while  the  clean- 
out  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  house  drain  controls  that  section  of  the 
drain,  and  the  two  cleanouts  on  the  main  trap  complete  the  entire 
control  of  the  house  drain  and  house  sewer. 

Nothing  can  add  more  to  the  worth  of  the  plumbing  system  than 
the  intelligent  and  liberal  use  of  cleanouts.  The  money  invested  in 
cleanouts  is  a  good  investment  always,  for  their  use  often  saves  not 
only  much  annoyance,  but  avoids  the  breaking  into  pipes  to  remove 
stoppages. 

Every  trap  on  the  plumbing  system,  with  the  exception  of  water- 
closet  traps  and  other  traps  combined  in  the  fixture  itself,  should  be 
provided  with  a  cleanout.  All  cleanout  screws  should  be  of  brass. 
Cleanouts  for  use  on  soil  piping  are  of  two  kinds,  entirely  of  brass 
or  having  the  body  of  iron  and  the  screvv^  of  brass. 


CLEANOUTS  163 

The  latter  is  known  as  the  iron-body  cleanout.  The  threaded 
parts  of  cleanouts  should  have  at  least  six  threads,  tapered,  and  of 
iron-pipe  size.  Cleanouts  should  be  of  the  full  size  of  the  pipe  or 
trap  which  they  serve,  up  to  a  diameter  of  5  in.,  and  not  less  than 
5  in.  in  size  for  larger  traps. 

Cleanouts  should  always  be  used  in  the  ends  of  Ys  into  which 
vertical  stacks  connect,"  as  shown  in  Fig.  E,  Plate  14,  and  in  the  ends 
of  all  horizontal  branches  of  soil  or  waste  pipes.  Quarter  bends 
being  used  on  rain  leaders,  cleanouts  used  on  their  traps  must  be 
depended  upon  for  cleaning  purposes. 

A  cleanout  should  be  used  at  each  change  in  direction  of  hori- 
zontal piping.  By  this  means  each  run  of  piping  is  fully  controlled 
in  the  event  of  stoppage. 

The  cleanouts  thus  far  mentioned  are  known  as  end  clean- 
outs. 

In  long  runs  of  horizontal  waste  and  soil  pipe  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  provide  cleanouts  at  intermediate  points.  Special  cleanout 
fittings  are  made  for  this  purpose,  into  which  the  cleanout  cover 
screws. 

They  should  be  placed  not  farther  than  30  ft.  apart,  and  a  more 
liberal  use  of  them  can  be  made  with  advantage. 

All  cleanouts  should  be  made  tight  with  a  gasket,  and  no  clean- 
out  depending  on  the  use  of  putty  for  a  tight  joint  should  be  allowed. 

All  cleanouts  in  main  traps  that  are  underground,  or  any  other 
cleanout  that  is  underground,  should  be  made  accessible  by  means 
of  depressions  in  the  concrete  bottom,  and  cleanouts  outside  the  walls 
of  the  house  should  be  located  in  accessible  manholes. 

The  gasket  generally  used  on  cleanouts  is  of  rubber,  and  if  the 
gasket  has  been  in  use  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  it  is  almost 
certain  to  be  destroyed  in  removing  the  cleanout  cover.  If  not  de- 
stroyed, it  is  probable  that  it  has  become  so  hard  and  lifeless  that,  if 
again  used,  a  tight  joint  cannot  be  made.  Therefore  a  new  gasket 
should  be  used  on  a  cleanout  whenever  the  cover  is  removed,  after 
having  been  in  use  long  enough  to  get  into  this  condition. 

Another  form  of  cleanout,  not  extensively  used,  however,  makes 
tight  by  means  of  a  ground  joint.  The  advantage  of  this  cleanout 
is  that  it  is  free  from  the  objectionable  features  incident  to  the  use 
of  gaskets.  The  ground  joint  is  also  often  easier  to  open  than  the 
screw  joint. 


i64  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

The  foregoing  remarks  apply  only  to  cleanouts  used  on  the  large 
drainage  piping. 

There  are  certain  additional  facts  to  be  considered  also,  concern- 
ing cleanouts  on  other  parts  of  the  plumbing  system. 

Whenever  brass  and  galvanized-iron  pipe  is  used  for  waste  pur- 
poses, cleanouts  should  be  liberally  used  at  points  where  a  change  in 
direction  occurs. 

All  drum  traps  located  under  floors  should  have  their  cleanout 
covers  flush  with  the  floor,  in  order  to  make  them  accessible  without 
the  removal  of  flooring.  Such  cleanout  covers  may  be  concealed 
beneath  nickel-plated  covers  or  guards  screwed  to  the  floor.  The 
cleanouts  of  all  traps  should  be  on  the  inlet  side  of  the  trap,  and  sub- 
merged wherever  possible.  Submerged  cleanouts  show  an  imper- 
fect joint  by  leakage,  whereas  the  same  imperfection  in  the  case  of 
a  cleanout  not  submerged  might  remain  undetected  for  an  indefinite 
length  of  time. 

Cleanouts  on  fixture  vents  are  demanded  by  the  plumbing  ordi- 
nances of  certain  cities,  but  in  a  vast  majority  of  cases  it  is  probably 
a  practice  which  has  little  value.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  usually 
use  of  the  cleanout  is  by  the  inmates  only,  who  know  so  little  con- 
cerning the  purpose  of  the  vent  and  of  the  cleanout  that  it  is  almost 
never  made  use  of.  When  there  is  a  stoppage  of  the  waste  it  makes 
itself  known  at  once,  but  a  stoppage  of  the  vent  opening  is  never 
known,  and  consequently  the  remedy,  by  means  of  the  cleanout,  never 
applied. 


Plate  XXV 

TESTING   OF   THE    PLUMBING    SYSTEM 
THE  WATER,   AIR,  SMOKE,  AND 
PEPPERMINT    TESTS 


P/umJb/ng  Sys/'zm 


Jhe,odler 


fr&^ 


P/umbing     unde^r 


C'=>2Iar 


(§Jq>2Q'=>/-  (qi^cL 


<^J2Z.  <=>Jz  e  07^0? /^-^ 


<^<3<5/22Zg 


G 


Jb^od^aj^ 


A  2 1     (£>7Be2Z.  227.0^ 


<3^T'  e  <57s  yi  22r* 


^C222z  2<^eoc2e:2r* 


.jpqB 


7^\ 

C^J^2Z(ZCr2o2Z 

J7^oc7^,22^e 


f-fg-  c. 

Rlumbing  under  6r77<=>ke    Te^h 


TESTING    OF    THE    PLUMBING    SYSTEM 

All  properly  arranged  plumbing  ordinances  now  demand  that 
two  tests  shall  be  applied  to  each  newly  constructed  plumbing  sys- 
tem— one  when  the  roughing  has  been  completed,  and  the  other  when 
the  entire  plumbing  system  has  been  completed  and  is  ready  for  use. 
No  drainage  pipe,  vent  pipe,  or  fitting  should  be  concealed  in  parti- 
tions or  between  floors  or  buried  underground  until  after  the  first  test 
has  been  applied  and  the  work  inspected  by  the  proper  official. 

These  tests  are  for  the  purpose  of  ensuring  correct  work,  free 
from  defects  arising  in  construction  and  manufacture.  There  are 
four  different  methods  of  testing  the  plumbing  system — the  water 
test,  air  test,  peppermint  test,  and  smoke  test.  Of  these,  the  water, 
peppermint,  and  smoke  tests  are  most  commonly  used. 

The  water  and  air  tests  are  chiefly  used  as  the  first  test  on  new 
work.  When  it  comes  to  the  final  test,  either  the  peppermint  or 
smoke  test  may  be  applied.     Each  is  thorough  when  properly  applied. 

The  question  as  to  which  is  the  better  test  is  open  to  debate,  each 
test  having  certain  advantages  and  possible  disadvantages. 

Before  the  final  test  is  applied,  all  fixture  s  should  be  in  position 
and  the  system  entirely  complete,  and  the  traps  filled  with  water. 

On  old  work  in  residences  and  other  finished  and  occupied  build- 
ings, the  water  test  cannot  be  applied,  owing  to  the  damage  that 
might  result.  U'nder  these  conditions,  either  the  peppermint  or 
smoke  test  should  be  used.  The  testing  of  old  work  should  be  done 
much  oftener  than  it  is,  as  it  is  of  much  value,  not  only  in  showing 
defects  in  joints  and  the  material  for  piping  and  connections,  but  also 
in  disclosing  by-passes  and  other  wrong  connections,  stoppages,  the 
loss  of  trap  seals,  the  absence  of  traps  on  rain  leaders  and  drains,  etc. 

THE    WATER   TEST 

The  water  test  is  applied  to  the  roughing  of  all  new  work,  unless 

water  is  not  at  hand  or  there  is  danger  of  its  freezing,  in  which  case 

the  air  test  may  be  applied. 

167 


i68  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

Plate  24  shows  the  plumbing  system  ready  for  testing.  All 
openings  must  be  closed.  Lead  bends,  traps,  and  pipes  must  have 
their  ends  soldered,  and  wrought-iron  pipe  ends  must  be  capped. 
The  ends  of  pipes,  bends,  etc.,  should  be  closed  when  the  roughing 
is  completed,  without  regard  to  the  test,  in  order  to  prevent  refuse 
of  any  kind  from  entering  the  system. 

Soil-pipe  openings  should  be  closed  by  specially  devised  stoppers 
or  testing  plugs,  as  shown  in  the  three  illustrations  of  Plate  25. 

These  openings  would  include  the  house-drain  outlet,  fresh-air 
inlet,  rain  leaders,  floor  drains,  etc. 

If  the  stacks  do  not  end  above  the  roof  on  or  near  the  same 
level,  the  shorter  stacks  should  have  their  open  ends  plugged. 

AVith  the  plumbing  system  thus  prepared,  water  is  filled  into 
the  system  until  it  overflows  from  the  highest  stack  onto  the  roof. 

The  test  is  generally  made  by  the  plumber,  in  the  presence  of 
the  plumbing  inspector,  and  the  water  is  generally  required  to  stand 
for  several  hours  before  being  drawn  ofif. 

This  is  for  the  purpose  of  exposing  leaks  which  sometimes  do 
not  make  themselves  known  for  a  time. 

Defects  often  do  not  appear  until  the  water  has  been  standing 
long  enough  to  thoroughly  soak  through  the  oakum.  Water  may  be 
filled  into  the  system  through  any  opening,  the  fresh-air  inlet  often 
being  a  convenient  point. 

Testing  plugs  are  made  with  a  provision  allowing  water  to  pass 
through  them,  for  the  purpose  of  filling  the  piping.  Such  a  plug, 
with  its  connection,  is  shown  in  the  fresh-air  inlet  of  Fig.  A.  Sev- 
eral different  makes  of  testing  plugs  that  do  good  service  are  now 
on  the  market,  several  forms  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  B. 

The  most  common  form  is  that  shown  at  the  right-hand  end. 
It  makes  tight  by  means  of  the  expansion  of  a  heavy  rubber  ring 
against  the  inner  surface  of  the  pipe.  The  ring  is  expanded  between 
two  iron  plates  brought  together  by  a  large  hand  nut. 

Plugs  of  this  description  will  not  generally  hold  much  over  50 
lbs.  pressure  without  being  blown  out. 

A  very  good  plug  for  high  pressures  is  one  which  clamps  around 
the  outside  of  the  hub,  making  tight  by  means  of  a  rubber  packing 
forced  against  the  end  of  the  hub.  This  testing  plug  is  shown  in 
Fig.  B. 

The  same  plug  may  be  applied  to  the  spigot  end  of  a  pipe  by 


THE    WATER    TEST 


169 


using  a  split  collar  against  which  the  clamp  may  hold.  In  Fig.  A 
the  use  of  a  double  testing  plug  is  shown. 

This  is  a  valuable  device  for  the  connection  shown,  and  for 
closing  the  main-trap  outlet. 

In  using  this  test,  water  should  be  filled  into  the  system  slowly, 
and  as  fast  as  defects  appear  they  should  be  made  tight  before  rais- 
ing the  water  higher. 

There  are  two  reasons  for  this.  A  small  leak  at  a  high  point 
may  allow  water  to  trickle  down  the  pipe,  and  thus  make  it  difficult 
to  locate.  If  the  system  is  quickly  filled,  a  large  quantity  of  water 
may  escape  from  some  large  defect  before  it  can  be  drawn  off. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  test  certain  sections  of  'the  system 
as  the  work  progresses. 

In  making  such  tests  there  should  be  a  column  of  water  at  least 
10  ft.  in  height  above  all  parts  of  the  work  to  be  tested. 

Very  high  stacks  should  be  tested  in  sections  of  not  over  75  ft. 
in  length,  as  the  pressure  of  water  when  such  a  stack  is  tested  entire 
is  very  great,  and  cannot  be  applied  with  safety. 

To  find  the  pressure  that  is  being  exerted  at  any  point  on  the 
plumbing  system,  multiply  the  vertical  distance  of  this  point  from 
the  top  of  the  highest  stack  by  .434,  the  pressure  exerted  by  one 
foot  of  water.  This  will  give  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square 
inch.  Thus,  a  point  50  ft.  from  the  top  will  be  under  a  pressure  of 
50  X  .434  =  21.7  lbs.  per  sq.  in. 

The  following  table  may  be  valuable  in  this  connection : 


TABLE    OF    PRESSURES    OF    WATER 


Pressure 

Pressure 

Pressure 

Head                 per  sq.  in. 

Head                per  sq.  in. 

Head                per  sq.  in. 

I  ft. 

.  .      .43  lbs. 

55  ft.. 

.23.82  lbs. 

I  10    ft. 

.47.64  lbs 

5  "• 

.  .   2.16    " 

60  ■•  . 

•25.99    " 

115    ''.. 

.49.81  " 

10    " 

••   4-33    " 

65  "• 

.28.15    " 

120    "   .  . 

.51-98  " 

15  "■ 

..   6.49    " 

70  •'  . 

.30.32    '' 

125    "   .  . 

.54.15  " 

20  " . 

..   8.66    " 

75  "• 

.32.48    " 

130    "   . 

.56.31  " 

25 " 

.  .  10.82    " 

80  "  . 

•34.65    " 

135    "   • 

.58.48  " 

30 " 

..12.99    " 

85  ". 

.36.82    " 

140    "   . 

.60.64  " 

35  " 

..15.16    - 

90  ". 

.38.98    '' 

145    "   • 

.62.81  " 

40  " 

..17.32    " 

95  "■ 

.41.15    " 

150    "   . 

.64.97  " 

45  " 

..19.49    " 

100  "  . 

.•43.31    " 

155    "   • 

..67.14  " 

50  " 

..21.65    " 

105  "  . 

.-45.48    " 

160    "   . 

..69.31  " 

lyo 


MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 


Head 

165  ft 
170 

180  " 

185  " 

190  " 

200  " 

205  " 

210  " 

215  " 

220  " 

225  " 

230  " 

235  " 


Pressure 
per  sq.  in. 

71.47  lbs 

73-64 
75.80 

77-97 
80.14 

82.30 

84.47 
86.63 
88.80 
90.96 

93-14 
95-30 
97-49 
99-63 
101.79 


Pressure 

Pressure 

Head 

per  sq.  in. 

Head                    per  sq.  1 

n. 

240    ft. 

.  .  103.96  lbs. 

330    ft 

.  .  142.95  lbs 

245    " 

.  .  106.13    " 

340    "    . 

.  .  147.28 

250    " 

.  .  108.29    " 

350    "   • 

..I5I.61 

255    " 

..110.46    " 

360    "   . 

-•155-94 

260    " 

.  .  .  112.62    " 

370    "    . 

. .  160.27 

265     " 

..114.79    " 

380    " 

.  .  164.61 

270    " 

.  .  116.96    " 

390    " 

.  .  168.94 

^7S  " 

.  .  119.12    " 

400    " 

..173.27 

280  " 

.  .  121.29    " 

500    " 

..216.58 

285  '' 

.•123.45    " 

600    " 

..259.90 

290  " 

.  .  125.62    " 

700    "    . 

..303.22 

295  " 

.  .  127.78    " 

800    " 

.-346.54 

300  " 

..129.95    " 

900    '*' 

..389.86 

310  '' 

..134.28    " 

1000    ''    . 

- -433-18    " 

320  " 

..138.62    " 

THE    AIR    TEST 

When  the  air  test  is  applied  to  the  roughing,  air  should  be 
forced  into  the  system  through  a  force  pump,  until  a  pressure  of  lo 
lbs.  is  reached,  lo  lbs.  representing  20  in.  of  mercury.  The  air  test 
is  not  so  convenient  and  satisfactory  to  the  plumber  as  the  water 
test,  for  the  location  of  a  small  leakage  of  air  is  not  so  easily  found 
as  a  small  leakage  of  water.  Generally,  in  the  case  of  a  small  air 
leak,  the  plumber  goes  over  the  pipe  with  a  lather  of  soap  applied 
with  a  brush.  The  escaping  air  will  form  a  bubble,  thus  showing  the 
location  of  a  defect. 

However,  the  air  test  subjects  all  parts  of  the  system  to  the 
same  uniform  pressure,  while  the  pressure  in  the  water  test  varies 
from  zero  pressure  at  the  top  to  a  pressure  at  the  bottom  depending 
upon  the  height  of  the  stack.  In  applying  the  air  test,  all  openings 
are  closed.  Through  any  convenient  plug,  a  gas  pipe  is  connected, 
to  which  a  mercury  gauge  is  attached,  and  hose  connection  made 
to  the  force  pump.  The  air  pumped  into  the  system  exerts  a  pres- 
sure on  the  mercury,  forcing  it  upward  in  -the  tube  about  two  inches 
for  each  pound  of  air  pressure. 


THE    PEPPERMINT    TEST  171 

THE    SMOKE    TEST 

In  applying  the  smoke  test,  a  machine  designed  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  a  heavy  vokmie  of  black  smoke  is  used.  Various  mate- 
rials are  used  in  this  machine  for  producing  the  smoke,  among  them 
being  oily  cotton  waste,  tarred  paper,  and  oakum  which  has  been 
soaked  in  petroleum.  Waste  is  the  best  material,  as  it  gives  off  a 
dense  smoke  and  is  not  so  inflammable  as  most  other  materials.  In 
Fig.  C,  Plate  25,  is  shown  the  manner  in  which  the  smoke  test  is 
applied.  Generally  the  hose  connection  from  the  smoke  machine  is 
run  through  a  lead  cap  which  is  closed  up  with  putty.  The  smoke- 
test  plug  shown  in  Fig.  B  is  also  used,  the  smoke  passing  through 
the  plug. 

After  the  whole  system  is  filled  with  smoke,  an  air  pressure 
equal  to  a  one-inch  water  column  is  applied.  Defects  are  shown  by 
puffs  of  smoke  escaping  through  them. 

The  smoke  test  appears  to  be  displacing  the  peppermint  test, 
and  for  work  in  general,  it  appears  to  be  the  more  reliable  of  the  two. 


THE    PEPPERMINT    TEST 

If  the  final  test  is  to  be  made  with  peppermint,  a  mixture  of 
2  ounces  of  oil  of  peppermint  to  a  gallon  of  hot  water  is  the  require- 
ment for  an  ordinary  house. 

On  large  work,  2  ounces  of  peppermint  should  be  used  for  each 
stack  up  to  five  stories  and  basement  in  height,  and  for  each  addi- 
tional five  stories,  or  fractional  part  of  that  number,  an  additional 
ounce  per  stack.  The  peppermint  should  be  poured  into  the  roof 
opening  and  the  opening  sealed.  The  person  who  has  handled  the 
peppermint  should  not  enter  the  building  until  the  test  has  been  com- 
pleted, as  the  odor  which  he  carries  will  spread  about  the  house. 

Peppermint  has  a  very  penetrating  odor,  and  its  fumes  quickly 
reach  every  part  of  the  system,  and  by  their  escape  bring  attention 
to  defects.  A  great  point  against  the  use  of  peppermint  is  that 
through  a  large  defect  the  peppermint  will  pour  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  quickly  fill  the  house  with  the  odor,  making  it  difffcult  to  locate 
other  leaks.  Under  certain  conditions,  however,  the  peppermint  test 
seems  to  be  the  more  reliable. 


172  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

For  instance,  on  old  work,  much  of  the  soil  piping  is  often  buried 
underground.  In  the  event  of  defects  underground,  the  peppermint 
fumes  will  often  penetrate  through  into  the  cellar,  whereas  smoke 
would  not. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  comparatively  few  towns  of  size, 
or  cities,  which  do  not  demand  the  testing  and  inspection  of  the 
plumbing  system,  and,  without  doubt,  no  other  factor  has  resulted 
in  an  equal  amount  of  good  in  the  attainment  of  sanitary  work. 

Such  provision  makes  it  far  more  difficult  for  work  to  be  con- 
structed of  inferior  material  and  with  wrong  connections,  as  between 
the  testing  and  inspection  of  the  system  many  of  these  features  are 
discovered. 

It  is  almost  an  impossibility  to  provide  country  plumbing  con- 
struction with  the  advantages  of  the  inspection  and  test. 

The  result  of  inability  under  the  circumstances,  to  provide  such 
regulation,  results  in  the  construction  of  a  considerable  amount  of 
poor  and  unsanitary  work  in  the  country. 

This  condition  has  been  much  improved  in  recent  years,  how- 
ever, chiefly  through  the  demands  of  owners- for  tests  to  be  made  in 
the  presence  of  architect  and  owner,  and  through  the  effort  of  many 
architects  to  demand  these  things  in  their  specifications. 


Plate  XXVI 

CONTINUOUS    VENTING 


fC^ 


J7^ajz2e,  /^-?s/ 


u- 


fO 


fC5» 


J7§  a  J  7^^ 


/"/^.  -a. 


^wQ 


FT 


J7§  O'i.TS 


\ 


zJ^ 


n9  o. 


CONTINUOUS    VENTING 

As  previously  stated,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  system  of  vents 
to  supply  air  to  the  fixture  traps,  in  order  that  they  may  not  suffer 
from  the  siphonage  of  their  seals. 

The  one  great  objection  to  the  system  of  trap  venting  as  it  now 
stands,  is  the  fact  that  a  vast  majority  of  vents  are  found  to  be  almost, 
if  not  completely  closed,  at  the  end  of  a  few  years  of  service.  This 
result  comes  about  chiefly  owing  to  the  location  of  the  opening  of 
the  trap  vent  into  the  trap.  Of  necessity  the  vent  of  most  traps,  as 
ordinarily  installed,  must  be  taken  off  at  such  a  point  that  this  open- 
ing readily  closes  up  with  grease,  lint,  etc.  If  the  stoppage  came  on 
the  waste  it  would  quickly  become  apparent,  but  a  stoppage  of  the 
vent  cannot  become  known  usually,  for  the  fixture  may  be  used  as 
readily  as  if  the  vent  were  free,  and  in  many  cases  the  trap  may  lose 
its  seal  owing  to  the  stoppage  of  the  vent,  and  the  fixture  still  be 
used,  the  actual  conditions  remaining  unknown  to  the  inmates. 

In  the  use  of  the  half-S  trap,  however,  the  vent  may  often  be 
taken  off  the  horizontal  arm  of  the  trap  at  such  a  distance  from  the 
trap  itself  that  much  less  difficulty  is  experienced  from  stoppages  of 
its  vent  opening. 

The  S-trap  or  other  trap  in  which  the  outlet  pipe  is  carried 
horizontally  from  the  trap,  or  nearly  so,  may  be  used  in  continuous 
vent  work,  but  traps  of  the  style  of  full  S  or  ^-S  traps  cannot  be 
used,  the  reason  for  which  will  soon  appear. 

Plate  26  shows  three  illustrations  of  work  in  which  the  con- 
tinuous vent  principle  is  applied.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  provide  special  forms  of  traps  whose  vent  openings  would  not 
close  up,  and  mechanical  devices  have  been  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, but  without  satisfactory  results.  The  continuous  vent,  how- 
ever, without  resort  to  special  contrivances  or  devices,  vents  the  trap 
perfectly,  and  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  little,  and  in  fact  no  dan- 
ger of  the  vent-opening  closing  up. 

The  three  fixtures  in  Fig.  C  are  provided  with  continuous  vents, 
the  half  S-trap  being  used  on  each.  It  consists  merely  in  connecting 
the  outlet  of  the  trap  into  a  waste  fitting  so  located  that  a  vent  may 

175 


176  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

be  taken  off  the  top  of  the  same  fitting.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that 
the  possibility  of  the  stoppage  of  the  openings  of  these  vent  pipes  is 
very  small  in  comparison  with  work  of  ordinary  character,  in  which 
the  vent  is  connected  to  the  trap.  Wrought  iron  is  generally  used 
for  the  waste  and  vent  on  work  that  is  concealed,  while  brass  is  much 
used  on  exposed  work.  Figs.  A  and  B  show  the  same  work  installed 
w4th  cast-iron  pipe.  The  objection  to  the  use  of  cast-iron  pipe  on 
this  work  is  that  it  is  not  made  smaller  than  of  2-in.  diameter.  The 
fittings  being  so  large  is  another  reason  for  not  using  it  so  exten- 
sively as  wrought  iron. 

In  all  continuous  vent  work  the  vent  is  a  continuation  of  the 
waste  line. 

As  will  be  seen  in  connection  with  several  later  plates,  the  con- 
tinuous vent  finds  excellent  application  to  groups  and  lines  of  fixtures 
on  large  work,  such  as  lines  of  urinals  or  lavatories  in  public  toilet 
rooms.  The  fact  that  the  vent  opening  is  in  no  danger  of  stoppage 
is  sufficient  to  recommend  the  continuous  vent  to  universal  use,  even 
if  no  other  advantages  were  to  be  gained.  An  additional  advantage 
of  importance,  gained  by  the  continuous  vent,  is  a  decreased  rate  of 
evaporation  of  the  trap  seal.  This  result  is  to  be  expected,  owing  to 
the  distance  of  the  vent  connection  from  the  seal  of  the  trap. 

Fig.  B  shows  the  continuous  vent  applied  to  two  lavatories,  back 
to  back,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  same  partition.  For  fixtures  thus 
relatively  located,  the  continuous  vent  is  of  very  great  value  not  only 
because  of  the  advantages  that  are  gained  as  named  above,  but  also 
for  the  reason  that  a  saving  in  cost  of  construction  is  effected  by  its 
use.  As  far  as  the  waste  and  vent  for  the  two  fixtures  are  concerned, 
no  more  labor  or  stock  is  used  than  in  constructing  the  waste  and 
vent  for  one  alone. 

It  may  not  be  clear  to  the  reader  that  traps  with  other  than  a 
horizontal  outlet  cannot  be  used  on  continuous  vent  work. 

As  already  stated  elsewhere,  in  order  to  prevent  the  siphon  from 
operating,  air  must  be  brought  into  it  at  or  near  its  crown.  If  air 
is  brought  into  the  long  outlet  arm  of  the  siphon,  it  will  not  break 
its  action.  In  the  same  way,  a  vent  taken  off  the  outlet  at  some  dis- 
tance down  from  the  crown  of  the  }i-S  sink  trap,  shown  in  Plate  9, 
will  not  accomplish  results.  In  order,  then,  that  air  may  be  admitted 
on  the  same  level  as  the  trap  seal  and  at  a  distance  from  it,  a  trap  of 
the  general  design  of  the  half-S  trap  must  be  used. 


Plate  XXVII 

CONTINUOUS  VENTING  FOR  TWO-FLOOR 

WORK 


J7&022S  J^T^OIZ^ 


CONTINUOUS    VENTING   FOR   TWO-FLOOR   WORK 

The  continuous  venting  of  fixture  traps  is  sometimes  known  as 
"  venting  in  the  rough,"  the  origin  of  the  phrase  being  easily  under- 
stood after  referring  to  Plate  27,  the  connections  for  which  are 
almost  wholly  made  when  the  roughing  is  installed.  In  many  towns 
and  cities  double  apartment  houses,  with  two  flats  on  each  side,  are 
very  common,  and  in  buildings  of  this  kind  the  continuous-vent  prin- 
ciple may  be  applied  to  very  great  advantage,  after  the  manner 
shown  in  Plate  27. 

This  same  style  of  work  may  be  used  in  many  other  buildings 
where  the  plumbing  fixtures  are  on  two  floors,  and  assembled  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  assembling  of  the  fixtures  in  Plate  27.  So 
long  as  the  stack  serves  fixtures  on  two  floors  only,  it  does  not  mat- 
ter whether  the  two  floors  are  consecutive,  or  whether  one  or  more 
floors  intervene  between  the  two  on  v^hich  the  fixtures  are  located. 

In  double  apartment  houses  the  rooms  are  generally  so  planned, 
and  the  plumbing  fixtures  so  located,  that  the  stacks  may  be  carried 
up  in  the  wall  which  divides  the  two  sides  of  the  building.  When 
so  arranged,  only  half  the  number  of  vertical  stacks  is  needed  that 
would  otherwise  be  necessary. 

Thus,  one  stack  may  serve  all  four  kitchen  sinks  in  the  four- 
flat  apartment  building,  the  four  fixtures  being  backed  up  to  each 
other  in  pairs,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  division  wall  or  partition, 
under  which  conditions  the  system  shown  in  Plate  27  may  easily  be 
applied. 

The  main  waste  and  vent  stacks  are  run  in  the  usual  manner, 
the  two  being  connected  above  the  highest  fixture,  and  below  the 
lowest  waste  entrance.  A  novel  departure  is  made  in  connecting 
the  traps  of  the  two  fixtures  on  the  upper  floor.  Instead  of  connect- 
ing them  into  the  waste  stack  in  the  ordinary  manner,  they  are  con- 
nected into  the  line  that  would  ordinarily  be  the  main  vent  stack. 

As  the  upper-floor  fixtures  are  not  connected  into  the  waste 
stack,  the  line  of  pipe  above  the  waste  fitting  of  the  lower  floor  is  a 
vent,  and  into  this  vent  line  the  vent  line  from  the  other  two  fix- 
tures connects. 

179 


i8o  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

In  this  style  of  work,  neither  vertical  stack  is  entirely  a  waste 
stack,  or  entirely  a  vent  stack.  While  altogether  unlike  the  regular 
two-floor  work,  this  style  of  work  is  perfectly  legitimate. 

It  can  be  applied  only  to  two  floors,  for  the  third-floor  fixtures 
would  have  to  waste  into  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  vertical  stacks, 
and  that  stack  could  no  longer  be  used  as  a  vent  line. 

A  comparison  of  this  plate  with  Plate  28  will  show  that  this 
statement  must  be  true,  and  it  will  also  show  that  the  use  of  the 
connections  such  as  Plate  27  shows,  calls  for  much  less  outlay  in 
stock  and  labor  per  fixture  than  does  the  ordinary  method  of  con- 
tinuous venting. 

As  compared  with  crown  venting,  the  work  of  Plate  27  calls 
for  far  less  labor  and  considerably  less  stock. 

If  crown  venting  were  employed,  the  main  vent  line  would  have 
to  be  run  and  connected  with  the  waste  stack  above  and  below, 
as  shown. 

A  fitting  on  the  main  vent  line  would  be  required  at  each  floor, 
Avhile  the  waste  fittings  would  remain  the  same. 

Separate  vents  would  have  to  be  run  from  the  crown  of  each 
trap,  necessitating,  in  the  case  of  lead  work,  a  wiped  joint  on  the 
trap  and  another  at  the  vent  fitting.  This  comparison  will  show  that 
the  labor  involved  in  the  continuous  venting  of  two-floor  work  of  the 
style  shown  in  Plate  27  is  very  much  less  than  on  the  same  system 
installed  according  to  the  ordinary  methods  of  crown  venting. 

While  in  general  it  would  seem  that  continuous  venting  can  be 
done  with  less  labor,  it  cannot  so  often  be  done  with  less  stock,  but 
its  advantages  are  so  great  that  it  would  appear  that  in  the  higher 
grade  of  construction,  at  least,  it  would  soon  come  into  general  use. 
At  the  present  time  its  use  is  demanded  by  some  few  city  ordinances, 
and  recommended  by  others. 

There  is  this  to  be  said  concerning  its  adoption:  the  continuous 
vent  cannot  always  be  applied,  and  in  some  cases  it  could  not  be 
applied  without  considerable  additional  cost. 

Owing  to  these  conditions  it  would  seem  unwise  to  attempt  to 
demand  its  use  without  regard  to  circumstances  surrounding  the 
fixture,  but  at  the  same  time,  much  good  work  would  be  provided 
for  in  the  future,  and  a  long  step  taken  in  advance,  if  plumbing 
ordinances  would  call  for  the  use  of  continuous  venting  wherever 
practicable. 


Plate  XXVIII 

CONTINUOUS    VENTING    FOR    TWO    LINES 

OF    FIXTURES    ON     THREE    OR    MORE 

FLOORS^PRACTICAL    REQUIRE- 

MENTS    OF    VENTING 


lis  OJI^  _j-]s^ 

(^fo  c  " 


s 


S     o^ 


CONTINUOUS    VENTING   FOR   TWO    LINES    OF    FIX- 
TURES  ON   THREE   OR   MORE   FLOORS 

On  the  preceding  plate  the  continuous  vent  is  shown  in  a  spe- 
cial application  to  two-floor  work  for  four-flat  apartment  buildings. 
In  Plate  28  the  continuous  vent  is  shown  as  applied  to  double  lines 
of  fixtures  on  three  or  more  floors.  Such  double  lines  of  fixtures 
are  often  to  be  found  in  double  apartment  buildings. 

In  the  larger  cities  such  buildings  are  often  many  stories  in 
height,  and  in  the  towns  and  smaller  cities  double  apartment  build- 
ings of  three  and  four  stories  are  very  common. 

In  office  buildings,  also,  fixtures  are  often  so  located  that  two 
of  them  on  the  same  floor,  and  on  opposite  sides  of  a  wall  or  parti- 
tion, waste  into  the  same  stack.  The  work  shown  in  Plate  28  applies 
to  many  cases  of  similar  nature.  The  waste  from  each  of  the  two 
adjacent  fixtures  is  carried  into  the  same  waste  fitting,  from  the 
bottom  of  which  a  mutual  waste  is  run  to  the  waste  stack,  and  from 
the  top  a  mutual  vent  to.  the  vent  stack. 

In  addition  to  gaining  for  each  fixture  the  advantages  derived 
from  continuous  venting,  the  work  may  often,  and  in  fact  usually, 
be  done  with  less  labor  and  material  than  if  installed  with  the  cus- 
tomary crown  venting.  While  the  matter  of  saving  in  the  cost  of 
construction  might  be  questionable  in  the  case  of  a  single  line  of  fix- 
tures, the  addition  of  a  second  line  of  fixtures  requires  no  additional 
material  or  labor,  with  the  exception  of  the  furnishing  of  the  traps 
and  connecting  them  to  the  waste  fittings. 

The  system  shown  is  an  excellent  one,  and  without  doubt  will 
gradually  come  into  general  use,  a  result  much  to  be  desired.  The 
entire  system  shown  is  of  cast  iron,  but  it  may  be  said  that  for  the 
main  vent,  and  especially  for  the  fixture  wastes  and  vents,  wrought 
iron  is  more  generally  used.  In  the  case  of  the  mutual  fixture  wastes 
and  vents,  wrought  iron  will  efl^ect  a  saving  in  expense,  as  sizes 
smaller  than  2  in.  may  often  be  used,  and  cast-iron  pipe  is  not  made 
in  sizes  smaller  than  2  in. 

183 


i84  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 


PRACTICAL    REQUIREMENTS    OF    VENTING 

The  fixture  vent  should  pitch  upward  from  the  trap  at  all 
points  in  order  that  condensation  may  drain  into  the  trap,  and  it 
should  be  connected  into  the  main  vent  line  at  a  point  higher  than 
its  fixture,  so  that,  in  the  event  of  stoppage  of  the  trap  or  waste,  the 
fixture  waste  may  not  pass  off  through  the  vent. 

To  provide  against  the  latter  evil,  it  is  good  practice  in  the  case 
of  a  group  of  fixtures  whose  vents  connect  into  a  main  branch  vent, 
to  run  this  branch  so  that  its  lowest  vent  fitting  shall  be  at  least  two 
or  three  inches  above  the  top  of  the  highest  fixture  of  the  group. 

Formerly  much  vent  work  of  lead  was  used,  but  the  best  prac- 
tice to-day  calls  for  the  use  of  galvanized  iron  or  brass  on  all  branch, 
main  branch,  and  individual  fixture  vents  of  2  in.  or  less  in  size. 
The  use  of  lead  for  vent  work  is  fast  becoming  limited  to  use  in 
connection  with  lead  traps,  short  connections  being  made  into  the 
wrought- iron  or  brass  pipe. 

Main  branch  vents  should  be  increased  one  size  in  diameter 
after  passing  30  ft. 

When  a  fixture  is  located  8  ft.  or  more  from  the  main  vent,  its 
trap  vent  should  either  be  carried  independently  through  the  roof,  or 
enter  the  main  vent  stack  above  all  fixtures. 

Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  lavatory  of  Fig.  C,  Plate  20,  if  its  dis- 
tance is  8  ft.  or  more  from  the  stack,  its  vent  should  be  run  as  above; 
if  its  distance  is  6  ft.  or  more,  lead  should  not  be  used  on  its  waste. 
Under  such  conditions  the  use  of  the  continuous  vent  for  the  fixture, 
as  shown,  is  excellent  practice. 

Under  Plate  13,  it  was  shown  that  the  main  vent  line  might 
either  run  independently  through  the  roof  or  reenter  the  soil  or  waste 
vent  above  the  highest  fixture.  In  many  of  the  large  cities  this 
demand  is  qualified  by  recjuiring  the  running  of  a  main  vent  sepa- 
rately through  the  roof,  whenever  such  vent  serves  fixtures  on  more 
than  six  floors  or  extends  more  than  80  ft.  above  the  grade  line. 

Whenever  main  vent  lines  are  reentered  into  soil  or  waste  vents, 
no  fixture  should  be  located  on  any  floor  above  such  reentrance,  and 
be  connected  to  the  soil,  waste,  vent,  or  back-vent  pipes  from  fix- 
tures on  floors  below. 


Plate  XXIX 

CONTINUOUS  VENTING   OF   WATER  CLOS- 
ETS—CIRCUIT   VENTS— LOOP    VENTS 


C^nh'nu<^us  Vznhing 


R/ah^  Z9. 


11^022^  Jk>i2^e>  ^  Ve.2^/ 


CONTINUOUS    VENTING    OF    WATER    CLOSETS- 
CIRCUIT    VENTS— LOOP    VENTS 

In  the  system  of  plumbing  shown  on  Plate  29,  the  venting  of 
the  several  lines  of  water  closets  is  accomplished  by  extending  the 
horizontal  soil  line  beyond  the  last  fixture,  and  connecting  this  exten- 
sion into  a  main  vertical  line  of  vent  at  a  point  higher  than  the  top 
of  the  fixtures. 

The  main  vent  stack  may  be  at  either  end  of  the  line  of  fixtures, 
but  when  placed  at  the  end  opposite  the  soil  stack  the  connection  of 
the  horizontal  lines  into  the  vent  stack  is  usually  much  shorter  and 
more  direct,  and  installed  with  the  use  of  less  pipe.  When  placed 
at  the  same  end  as  the  soil  line,  the  running  back  to  this  point  of  a 
long  line  of  large-sized  pipe  would  often  be  a  difficult  or  impossible 
matter. 

This  form  of  venting  is  not  strictly  on  the  continuous-vent  prin- 
ciple as  shown  in  the  three  preceding  plates,  but  being  along  some- 
what the  same  general  lines  is  often  alluded  to  as  continuous  venting. 
This  method  is  also  known  as  circtiit  venting. 
The  system  of  circuit  vents,  as  prescribed  by  certain  plumbing 
ordinances,  consists  in  the  extension  of  the  horizontal  branch  soil  or 
waste  lines  and  the  connection  of  these  extensions  into  a  main  ver- 
tical vent  stack,  the  entire  system  including  both  main  soil  or  waste 
stack,  main  vent  stack,  and  branch  soil  or  waste  lines,  providing  for 
each  line  of  fixtures  a  complete  air  circulation  through  the  branch 
which  serves  them. 

The  advantages  derived  from  this  system,  as  applied  to  water- 
closet  lines,  may  also  be  obtained  for  other  fixtures. 

Fixtures  of  other  character,  such  as  the  lavatory  located  on  the 
second  floor  in  Plate  29,  are  vented  as  shown  in  the  case  of  this 
lavatory.  The  use  of  the  circuit-vent  system  is  of  special  value 
when  applied  to  lines  of  water  closets,  such  as  are  very  common  in 
public  toilet  rooms,  for  the  reason  that  the  free  circulation  of  air 
through  the  horizontal  lines  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  venting 
the  individual  fixtures  in  the  ordinary  manner,  that  is,  from  the  lead 
bend.     A  water  closet,  however,  connected  to  a  horizontal  soil  line 

187 


i88  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

served  by  a  circuit  vent,  and  located  5  ft.  or  more  from  that  line, 
should  be  vented  in  the  usual  manner. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  continuous  venting  of  lines  of  water 
closets  by  means  of  circuit  vents,  provides  ample  protection  to  the 
fixtures  against  siphonage,  and  eftects  a  great  saving  in  avoiding 
the  outlay  incident  to  installing  a  separate  vent  for  each  water  closet. 

The  common  method  of  venting  lines  of  water  closets  is  shown 
in  Fig.  D,  Plate  40.  Any  branch  line  of  soil  or  waste  pipe  serving 
a  line  of  two  or  more  fixtures  may  be  provided  with  a  circuit  vent 
to  the  advantage  of  the  system. 

When  the  horizontal  soil  branch  is  of  not  more  than  20  ft.  in 
length,  measuring  from  the  main  soil  stack,  and  the  line  is  not  entered 
by  more  than  four  water  closets,  the  vent  extension  may  be  reduced  to 
3  in.  from  the  end  of  the  branch  into  the  main  vent  stack.  When  a 
larger  number  than  four  water  closets  enter  the  horizontal  soil  branch, 
the  vent  extension  should  not  be  reduced  in  diameter,  but  should  con- 
tinue of  the  same  size  as  the  soil  branch,  into  the  main  vent  stack. 

While  not  allowable  to  use  quarter-bends  on  any  part  of  the 
drainage  system,  they  may  be  used  on  circuit  vents,  as  shown  in 
Plate  29.  While  much  used  on  this  work,  a  better  form  of  practice 
is  seen  in  the  use  of  a  T-Y  or  Y  and  eighth-bend,  in  place  of  the 
quarter-bend,  thus  allowing  the  use  of  an  end  cleanout,  by  means  of 
which  the  entire  horizontal  branch  could  be  controlled  in  the  event 
of  stoppage. 

In  addition  to  the  circuit  vent,  there  is  also  what  is  known  as 
the  loop  vent.  The  loop  vent  is  a  modified  form  of  the  circuit  vent, 
used  when  a  line  or  group  of  fixtures  on  a  single  floor  is  to  be  circuit- 
vented,  and  there  are  no  fixtures  on  the  floors  above. 

In  this  case  the  soil  or  waste  branch  is  extended  beyond  the 
line  of  fixtures,  and  run  up  as  in  the  case  of  the  circuit  vent,  and 
then  looped  over  the  line  of  fixtures  into  the  soil  or  waste  vent  of 
the  stack  into  which  the  branch  soil  or  waste  pipe  connects. 

The  loop  vent  may  be  used  for  a  single  line  of  fixtures,  on  a 
floor  above  which  are  other  fixtures  emptying  into  the  same  soil  or 
waste  stack,  by  connecting  the  loop  into  the  main  vent  stack  above 
the  highest  fixture  of  the  group. 

The  loop  vent  for  a  4-in.  soil  branch  may  be  3  in.  in  diameter. 

For  5  and  6-in.  soil  branches,  the  loop  vent  should  be  5  in.  in 
diameter,  and  for  larger  sizes  6  in. 


Plate  XXX 

PLUMBING  FOR  COTTAGE  HOUSE 
GENERAL    REMARKS 


Rlunnbing    f^n 

C<=>hhagz  H^use 


R/a/-e30. 


2"    '^  J2d>02T^  Veil'A 


12^02  Id, 
(Sfoc2^ 


4"        27SC722Z 


)v\r^:'v>\i'n-')\v\c\/y^^^ 


PLUMBING  FOR  COTTAGE  HOUSE— GENERAL 

REMARKS 

The  only  difference  betv/een  the  plumbing  system  of  a  small 
dwelling,  such  as  the  cottage  house,  and  the  larger  systems  to  be 
found  in  large  residences,  etc.,  is  that  it  is  of  a  less  complicated 
nature,  the  rooms  being  so  laid  out  and  the  pipes  so  located  that  the 
plumbing  of  the  house  is  much  more  centralized  than  is  possible  in 
larger  work.  It  is  quite  customary  in  the  construction  of  the  cot- 
tage house  to  so  arrange  the  piping  that  one  stack  will  be  able  to 
serve  all  the  fixtures  in  the  house.  For  dwellings  of  any  descrip- 
tion, this  stack  must  not  be  less  than  4  in.  in  diameter,  for  it  is  to 
receive  the  discharge  from  the  water  closet,  for  which  nothing  less 
than  4-in.  pipe  should  ever  be  provided,  and  as  the  water  closet  is 
to  be  vented  ustially,  a  2-in.  main  vent  is  required. 

In  the  case  of  two  stacks  of  different  size,  it  is  better  practice 
to  have  the  larger  one  at  the  house  end  of  the  house  drain,  rather 
than  to  reduce  after  passing  the  larger  stack  to  the  size  of  the 
smaller  stack. 

Thus,  in  Plate  30,  if  the  house  drain  were  continued  to  receive 
a  2-in.  stack,  and  reduced  after  passing  the  4-in.  stack,  the  circula- 
tion of  air  through  the  system  would  not  be  so  good  as  it  would  be 
with  the  4-in.  stack  at  the  end  of  the  line.  It  is  always  good  policy 
to  centralize  the  plumbing  as  far  as  possible,  as  any  legitimate 
expedient,  looking  to  the  simplification  of  a  system  that  has  now 
become  somewhat  complicated,  is  to  be  welcomed.  It  will  mean  less 
piping,  and  therefore  less  opportunity  for  defects,  stoppages,  etc. 

The  sizes  of  pipes  given  in  Plate  30  are  those  which  are  com- 
monly used,  and  to  which  no  exception  may  be  taken,  unless  with 
the  sink  and  laundry  tub,  whose  waste,  according  to  the  requirements 
of  some  ordinances,  should  be  one  size  larger  in  diameter,  which 
seems  to  be  a  wise  requirement. 

On  the  plumbing  systems  of  cottages,  residences,  etc.,  lead  work 

seems  to  continue  in  use  to  a  larger  extent  than  on  the  work  being 

installed  in  larger  buildings.     It  must  be  stated  in  this  connection, 

that  the  use  of  lead  is  still  followed  to  a  large  extent  in  certain  sec- 

191 


192  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

tions  of  the  country,  the  supersedmg  of  it  by  iron  and  brass  being 
particularly  noticeable  in  the  large  cities. 

For  waste  pipes  the  following  table  of  weights  may  be  safely 
followed : 

Diameter  of  Lead  Pipe  Weight  per  Foot 

1  in 2     lbs. 

i^  " ly.  " 

i>^" 3K  " 

2  " .4       " 

4      " - 6       " 

The  amount  of  pressure  on  street  mains  must  determine  the 
weights  of  lead  pipe  proper  for  supplies,  but  for  ordinary  pressures 
the  following  table  is  safe  to  follow: 

Diameter  of  Lead  Pipe  Weight  per  Foot 

3/8   in ii/<   lbs. 

y^     " 2 

Yz      "■ 2>^       '•'• 

^    " 3         " 

I    '' 4         " 

Sheet  lead  should  never  be  less  than  4  lbs.,  and  6  lbs.  for  roof 
flashings  is  preferable.  The  tendency  to  use  light  materials,  owing 
to  the  keen  competition  of  the  present  day,  is  very  marked,  and 
nowhere  on  the  plumbing  system  more  plainly  to  be  seen  than  in  the 
lead  work.  Lead  bends  and  drum  traps,  for  instance,  are  often  used 
which  are  so  fragile  that  the  workman  must  be  careful  that  in  his 
handling  of  them  they  are  not  crushed.  This  is  true  also  of  the  pipe. 
The  weights  given  above,  however,  if  obtained,  will  ensure  solid  and 
secure  work. 

The  choice  of  material  for  water-supply  pipes  should  always  be 
made  with  due  consideration  to  the  chemical  properties  of  the  water 
supply.  This  is  true  also  in  the  matter  of  range  boilers.  Some 
waters  will  quickly  attack  wrought-iron  pipe  and  boilers,  and  make 
renewal  necessary  in  comparatively  few  years. 

Lender  such  conditions,  lead  or  brass  supply  pipes  and  copper 
range  boilers  should  generally  be  used. 

On  high-grade  work,  brass  piping  is  now  being  extensively  used, 
and  for  the  best  work  all  changes  in  direction  are  made  by  bending 
the  pipe  rather  than  by  the  use  of  elbows. 


Plate  XXXI 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    CELLAR    PIPING— 
THE    HOUSE   DRAIN,    HOUSE    SEWER,   ETC, 


T    Piping 


R/af-o:  3L 


a  2  2^ 


^ 


^^ 


^ 


1 1     C2CGJd'=^z^^ 

M  1 

1 1        ^'■  c;^   ^Yoi^cZ 


M   4' 


I 


'it  i  i-c2t  e2z 


Jh  coder 


Moi2^  ^^"=^22^ 

C<=>Id2zec/2'='2S 

M222ZCI  JQ)^a22^  W  ^c?cie  _yb^_  y- 


\22Z^<=>  Cello 2?  Je>2^C722Q 

4' 


;z.-rrr-:-_-_^0 


\ 


aT^d 


^eiBcZ 


t  q7j^ojq 
Ce22a2^  jQ)2r*a22s 


i 


Cleo2z^u/^. 


t 


mm^^^^m 


C.I.  ^2 


lp> 


4" 


4' 


Q2re^2^  JL22? 


<5^e?ve2^ 


o       Ve2z  /27o/2<=^2z 

O"  Co7q> 


^ 


THE    HOUSE    DRAIN,    HOUSE    SEWER,    ETC. 

Plate  31  shows  the  general  form  of  the  drainage  piping  in 
the  cellar  or  basement.  Man}?-  of  the  features  which  appear  have 
been  taken  up  under  preceding  plates,  such  as  main  trap  and  fresh- 
air  inlet,  cellar  and  subsoil  drainage,  etc.,  and  will  not  be  again 
considered  here. 

Before  taking  up  the  consideration  of  the  above  subject,  it  will 
be  well  to  clearly  define  the  terms  house  drain  and  house  sewer,  con- 
cerning which  there  is  often  some  confusion. 

The  house  drain  is  that  portion  of  the  horizontal  piping  of  the 
drainage  system  of  any  building  into  which  all  the  soil  and  waste 
pipes,  whether  vertical  or  horizontal,  but  inside  the  building,  ulti- 
mately discharge.  The  house  drain  extends  through  the  founda- 
tion wall. 

The  house  sewer  is  a  continuation  of  the  main  drain,  from  the 
point  where  the  latter  ends,  to  its  connection  into  the  sewer  or  cesspool. 

The  house  drain  and  sewer,  under  any  ordinary  circumstances, 
should  serve  but  the  one  building,  it  being  entirely  wrong  to  connect 
the  sewage  from  any  building  into  the  house  drain  or  house  sewer 
of  another  building.  The  drainage  system  of  each  building  should 
be  entirely  distinct  and  separate  from  all  other  buildings. 

It  sometimes  occurs  in  the  large  cities,  where  buildings  of  mam- 
moth proportions  are  erected,  that  in  order  to  properly  care  for  the 
vast  amount  of  sewage  collected  over  large  areas  and  from  many 
floors,  it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  two  house  drains  and  sewers 
for  different  sections  of  the  building,  in  which  case  the  two  systems 
are  entirely  separate.  More  than  two  house  drains  and  sewers  are 
rarely  required.  The  running  of  the  house  drain,  whether  overhead 
or  underground,  is  determined  largely  by  the  prevailing  usages  of 
different  towns  and  cities.  For  instance,  the  prevailing  construction 
of  some  cities  is  flat  houses,  in  which  all  plumbing  fixtures  will  be 
found  on  the  several  floors,  and  none  in  the  basement  or  cellar,  under 
which  conditions  the  house  drain  may  be  run  overhead. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  prevailing  dwelling  houses  of  another 
city  may  have  two  or  three  single  flats,  the  laundry  tubs  for  the 

19s 


196  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

several  flats  being  placed  in  the  cellar,  which  necessitates  running 
the  house  drain  underground.  The  house  drain  should  be  of  extra- 
heavy  iron  pipe,  and  should  be  carried  to  a  point  10  ft.  from  the 
inner  face  of  the  cellar  wall.  This  means  that  two  full  lengths  of 
soil  pipe  are  to  be  used  in  running  from  the  foundation  wall  to  the 
house  sewer. 

•  The  reason  for  this  requirement  is  the  danger  of  broken  earthen- 
ware pipe  and  fittings  and  cement  joints,  close  to  the  foundation  wall, 
with  the  consequent  danger  of  the  leeching  of  escaping  sewage 
through  the  foundation  walls  into  the  cellar.  When  laid  under- 
ground, nothing  but  extra-heavy  tarred  cast-iron  pipe  should  be 
used,  whether  it  be  the  house  drain  or  branches  from  it.  This  is 
required  for  the  reason  that  uncoated  cast-iron  pipe  is  in  time  de- 
stroj^ed  by  galvanic  action  when  laid  underground,  and  wrought  iron 
and  steel  pipe  sufl^ers  in  the  same  way,  but  to  a  far  greater  extent. 
On  no  account  should  earthenware  pipe  enter  the  cellar.  The  best 
method  of  making  the  connection  at  the  main  trap  is  shown  in  Fig.  A, 
Plate  25,  as  the  use  of  an  end  cleanout  is  thus  allowed,  which  will 
control  the  straight  line  out  into  the  house  sewer  in  the  event  of 
stoppage.  If  the  house  drain  through  the  foundation  wall  cannot 
be  laid  low  enough  for  the  main  trap  to  discharge  into  the  Y  from 
above,  the  Y  may  be  used  lying  on  its  side. 

All  entrances  into  the  house  drain,  or  into  any  horizontal  soil 
or  waste  branch,  should  be  made  through  Y-branches  or  Y-branches 
and  bends. 

Into  the  house  drain  all  floor  drains,  cellar  drains,  etc.,  should 
be  connected. 

In  the  case  of  rain  leaders,  they  should  be  connected  into  the 
house  drain  when  brought  inside  the  basement  or  cellar,  but  may  also 
be  run  outside  the  foundation  walls  and  entered  into  the  house  sewer. 
If,  however,  there  is  a  separate  public  system  for  surface  sewage, 
clear  waste,  such  as  coming  from  floor  and  yard  drains,  rain  leaders, 
subsoil  drainage,  etc.,  should  be  connected  into  the  house  drain  of  the 
surface  sewage  system. 

The  matter  of  the  use  of  the  main  trap  is  generally  determined 
by  plumbing  ordinance.  The  practice  is  varied,  some  cities  demand- 
ing its  use,  others  prohibiting  it,  and  still  others  making  its  use 
optional.  When  the  main  trap  is  used,  however,  all  connections  into 
the  main  drain  should  be  made  on  the  house  side  of  the  trap. 


THE    HOUSE    DRAIN,    ETC  197 

The  objection  to  the  use  of  a  main  trap,  due  to  the  forcing  of 
its  seal,  has  caused  a  trial  of  two  main  traps  on  the  house  drain. 
The  use  of  two  traps,  however,  has  not  been  taken  up  to  any  extent. 

Whenever  two  traps  have  been  used,  the  fresh-air  inlet  has  been 
taken  ofif  on  the  house  side  of  the  trap  farthest  from  the  sewer,  and 
in  order  that  there  shall  be  no  air  lock  between  the  two  traps,  a  vent 
was  taken  off  a  fitting  placed  between  the  two  traps.  The  idea  of 
this  arrangement  was  that,  in  case  back  pressure  from  the  sewer 
was  sufficient  to  force  the  seal  of  the  first  trap,  the  seal  of  the  second 
trap  could  never  be  forced  because  of  the  vent  between  the  two  traps, 
and  in  this  way  sewer  gas  would  be  prevented  from  entering  the 
house-drainage  system.  An  objection  advanced  against  the  use  of 
a  single  main  trap  is  that  it  impedes  the  free  outflow  of  sewage  and 
is  subject  to  stoppage. 

The  use  of  two  traps  would  certainly  increase  these  troubles, 
and  their  use  would  seem  to  be  inadvisable.  As  already  stated,  sim- 
plicity rather  than  complexity  is  to  be  desired  in  all  parts  of  the 
plumbing  system,  and  especially  at  such  a  point  as  the  main  trap, 
where  serious  trouble  affects  the  entire  system. 

As  stated  above,  the  house  sewer  begins  at  the  point  where  the 
house  drain  ends,  which  is  generally  10  ft.  from  the  inside  face  of 
the  foundation  wall,  although  some  plumbing  ordinances  make  this 
distance  only  5  ft.  In  general,  the  house  sewer  is  constructed  of 
vitrified  earthen  pipe,  and  should  be  one  size  larger  than  the  house 
drain.  If  the  house  drain  is  4  in.  in  diameter,  the  house  sewer 
should  be  5  in. 

All  pipe  that  is  buried  deep  underground,  and  therefore  not 
easily  accessible,  should  be  of  larger  size  than  for  the  same  line  when 
running  above  ground,  whether  the  pipe  be  used  for  drainage  or 
supply  purposes.  When  the  house  sewer  is  laid  in  made  ground,  or 
in  ground  that  has  been  filled  in,  or  is  in  danger  of  destruction  from 
roots  of  trees  or  from  the  action  of  frost,  earthenware  pipe  should 
never  be  used.  Under  these  conditions  nothing  but  extra-heavy 
tarred  cast-iron  pipe  should  be  used,  laid  with  caulked  lead  joints,  but 
not  with  cement  joints.  When  the  house  sewer  must  of  necessity 
run  close  to  any  cistern,  or  any  source  of  water  supply,  it  should  be 
constructed  of  cast-iron  pipe. 

Joints  on  the  earthen  pipe  of  house  sewers  should  be  given  as 
careful  attention  as  joints  on  any  other  part  of  the  plumbing  system. 


198  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

although  this  work  is  often  constructed  in  a  most  careless  manner. 
Portland  cement  of  the  best  quality  should  be  used,  three  parts  of 
clean  sand  to  one  part  of  Portland  cement. 

The  opening  between  the  spigot  and  the  hub  should  be  entirely 
filled  with  cement,  and  whatever  cement  has  squeezed  out  into  the 
interior  of  the  pipe  should  be  cleaned  off  and  removed  before  the 
next  length  or  fitting  is  laid.  A  lath  is  convenient  for  cutting  off 
the  superfluous  cement.  A  stronger  and  better  joint  may  be  made  by 
caulking  a  ring  of  oakum  into  the  hub  before  the  cement  is  put  in. 

The  spigot  end  should  be  inserted  into  the  hub  so  that  the 
thickness  of  the  cement  will  be  uniform  around  the  circumference. 
Depressions  should  be  cut  into  the  bottom  of  the  trench  for  the  hubs 
to  set  into,  thus  allowing  the  pipe  to  rest  firmly  on  its  entire  length 
rather  than  on  the  hubs  only.  The  bottom  of  the  trench  should  have 
a  uniform  grade  of  not  less  than  2  ft.  in  100  ft.,  and  more  where 
possible,  and  in  long  lines  of  trench  work  it  becomes  almost  neces- 
sary to  have  the  grade  laid  out  by  an  engineer  in  order  that  the  work 
may  be  done  properly.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  total  pitch 
for  the  entire  length  is  barely  sufficient,  and  must  be  distributed 
evenly. 

Before  trenches  are  filled  in,  the  earth  around  pipes  should  be 
thoroughly  rammed,  and  no  pipe,  whether  water  or  drainage,  should 
be  covered  until  inspected  by  the  proper  official.  Changes  in  direc- 
tion of  the  house  sewer,  entrances  into  it  of  rain  leaders,  etc.,  should 
be  done  under  the  same  general  rules  regulating  like  work  in  con- 
nection with  the  house  drain. 

When  rain  leaders  connect  into  the  house  drain  or  house  sewer, 
it  should  be  seen  to  that  these  two  lines  are  of  sufficient  size  to  handle 
the  large  volume  of  rain  water  entering  them  during  severe  storms. 
The  amount  of  water  which  a  line  of  pipe  can  safely  be  depended 
upon  to  carry  depends  largely  on  the  grade  at  which  the  pipe  is  laid. 

The  connection  of  the  house  sewer  into  the  street  sewer  should 
be  made  as  shown  in  Plate  31,  that  is,  by  the  use  of  a  Y-branch  on 
the  main  sewer  and  a  bend  on  the  house  sewer. 

This  is  more  satisfactory  than  entering  a  tee,  just  as  it  is  on 
the  house-drainage  system.  When  the  street  sewer  and  house  sewer 
are  of  such  levels  that  a  proper  grade  can  be  secured,  the  house  sewer 
should  enter  the  main  street  sewer  above  the  center  of  the  arch  of 
the  latter. 


Plate  XXXII 

PLUMBING     FOR     RESIDENCES— USE     OF 
SPECIAL     FITTINGS— BRASS    PIPING 


R/umbing    ro/^  ^ 

f?es/c/ence  -  L/se  ^f         Q 
^       ^pzc/a/  F/'/'/'/ngs  ^ 


PLUMBING    FOR    RESIDENCES— USE    OF    SPECIAL 
FITTINGS— BRASS    PIPING 

The  plumbing  for  a  residence,  shown  in  Plate  32,  shows  the 
use  of  various  special  waste  and  vent  fittings,  which  are  now  coming 
into  use  extensively  on  the  best  class  of  work.  A  special  advantage 
gained  in  their  use  is  that  fixture  traps  may  be  easily  provided  with 
a  continuous  vent.  In  previous  plates  the  running  of  continuous 
vents  by  the  use  of  common  fittings  is  to  be  seen.  The  use  of  spe- 
cial fittings  often  saves  the  making  of  one  or  more  joints.  In  Plate 
32  all  the  fixtures  are  supplied  with  continuous  vents  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  bath  and  lavatory  in  the  bath  room,  and  the  refrigerator 
drip  sink.  It  is  very  rare  that  a  fixture  is  so  located,  however,  that, 
by  the  use  of  some  one  of  the  numerous  special  fittings  or  common 
fittings,  it  cannot  be  vented  on  the  continuous  principle.  It  will  be 
noted  that  sizes  of  all  pipes  are  given. 

For  the  ordinary  residence,  double  house,  two-  and  three-flat 
houses,  and  much  other,  work,  a  4-in.  house  drain  and  main  stack  is 
large  enough  for  the  work  required  of  them.  It  is  poor  policy  in 
constructing  the  house  drain  or  the  house  sewer,  or  any  horizontal 
drainage  pipe,  to  use  a  pipe  of  larger  size  than  is  necessary,  for  it 
is  much  better  to  have  the  sewage  which  is  flowing  through  a  hori- 
zontal line  fill  the  pipe  well  up  on  its  sides  than  to  have  the  pipe  so 
large  that  the  sewage  flows  in  a  thin  stream  at  the  bottom  of  it.  In 
the  latter  case,  heavy  sewage  is  more  liable  to  lodge  in  the  pipe, 
while  the  use  of  a  smaller  pipe  would  have  resulted  in  sufficient 
scouring  action  to  carry  it  along  through  the  pipe.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  in  Plate  32  the  laundry  tubs  are  located  in  the  cellar.  This  is 
a  very  common  practice.  A  strong  point  against  it,  however,  is  that, 
but  for  placing  this  fixture  in  the  cellar,  the  house  drain  might  be 
run  overhead  and  in  sight,  which  is  always  preferable  to  burying  it 
underground. 

On  high-grade  work,  such  as  is  to  be  found  in  residences,  apart- 
ment buildings,  etc.,  brass  piping  is  now  largely  used  for  waste  and 
vent  work. 


202  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

The  proper  weights  of  brass  pipe  are  to  be  found  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 

WEIGHTS    OF    BRASS    PIPE 

Nominal  Diameter  Nominal  Diameter 

of  Pipe  Weight  per  Foot  of  Pipe  Weight  per  Foot 

i>2  in 2.84  lbs.  4  in 11.29  lbs. 

2  " 3-82    "  4>^  " 13-08    '' 

2>^   " 6.08    "  5  " 15.37    " 

3  " 7.92    "  6  " 19.88    " 

3/2  " 9.54    " 

Brass  fittings  used  on  drainage  work  should  be  cast,  and  of 
extra  heavy  weight,  and  of  recessed  pattern,  similar  to  cast-iron 
recessed  drainage  fittings,  as  illustrated  in  Plate  44. 

With  the  various  appliances  now  on  the  market,  there  is  abso- 
lutely no  excuse  for  using  on  brass  and  nickel  pipes  the  tools  designed 
for  vise  on  wrought-iron  pipes.  These  appliances  include  brass  pipe 
vises  and  wrenches  of  various  makes,  the  use  of  which  avoids  all 
scratching  of  pipe  and  tubing,  and  the  crushing  of  the  latter  result- 
ing from  the  use  of  common  vises  and  pipe  wrenches. 

Brass  pipe  work  should  always  be  put  together  with  threaded 
connections  of  iron-pipe  size,  but  never  with  slip  joints  and  couplings. 

It  often  happens,  both  on  supply  and  drainage  work,  that  it  is 
necessary  or  desirable  to  make  a  bend  in  the  pipe  rather  than  to  vise 
an  elbow.  The  following  is  a  practical  method  of  performing  this 
work,  and  the  result,  when  the  work  is  properly  done,  is  a  perfect 
bend. 

First  fill  the  pipe  to  be  bent  with  sand,  and  securely  plug  each 
end.  Set  the  pipe  on  the  work  bench,  with  the  point  to  be  bent  over- 
hanging. Place  a  plumber's  furnace  under  the  pipe,  so  that  the  flame 
heats  the  pipe  at  the  bending  point.  To  confine  the  heat,  cover  this 
part  of  the  pipe  with  a  piece  of  sheet  iron,  or  a  shovel,  if  more  con- 
venient.    See  to  it  that  the  pipe  does  not  become  overheated. 

When  it  becomes  sufficiently  hot,  the  weight  of  the  overhanging 
pipe  will  cause  it  to  bend.  With  care  and  a  little  experience,  sharp 
right-angle  bends  can  be  easily  and  neatly  made  in  this  manner. 

When  heated,  brass  becomes  very  brittle,  and  it  should  not  be 
removed,  therefore,  until  somewhat  cooled. 

If  the  overhanging  end  is  too  short  to  provide  sufficient  weight 
to  cause  the  pipe  to  bend,  a  weight  may  be  attached  to  the  pipe. 


Plate  XXXIII 

PLUMBING      FOR      TWO-FLAT      HOUSE— 
RAINLEADERS— PLUiMBING    CONSTRUC- 
TION   FOR    TENEMENT    HOUSES 


F^/umbing    r'=>r 
Tw^  -r/of-  Housz  -/7o  nio/n 

Trap 


4r" 


J^oizs  Ihe  c7cZeT' 


y 


I 


ID 


■^" 


D 


ID=J 


PLUMBING    FOR    TWO-FLAT    HOUSE 

The  elevation  of  the  plumbing  for  a  two-flat  house,  with  pipe 
sizes  given,  is  shown  on  Plate  33.  In  general,  the  plumbing  on  build- 
ings of  this  class  is  confined  to  the  kitchen  sink,  laundry  tubs,  and 
three  bath-room  fixtures.  Although  not  shown  in  Plate  33,  owing 
to  lack  of  sufficient  space,  flat  buildings  of  all  classes  should  be  pro- 
vided with  refrigerator  drainage.  Usually  in  flat  houses  of  two  or 
three  stories,  a  4-in.  bath-room  stack  and  a  2-in.  kitchen  stack  is 
required,  although  in  some  cases  the  4-in.  stack  can  be  made  to  serve 
all  the  fixtures,  obviating  the  use  of  a  second  stack.  The  use  of  two 
stacks  is  better,  however,  as  separate  entrance  into  the  stacks  can 
be  gained  for  each  fixture,  which  would  be  very  difScult  if  the  five 
fixtures  entered  one  stack.  In  two-  or  three-flat  houses  the  laundry 
tubs  are  sometimes  located  in  the  cellar,  against  which  there  is  no 
special  objection,  if  the  cellar  is  well  lighted  and  ventilated,  except 
the  matter  of  inconvenience  to  the  tenants  on  the  upper  floors.  In 
Plate  33  all  fixtures  have  separate  waste  entrances,  and  it  will  be 
noted  that  the  kitchen  fixtures  are  served  by  the  special  method 
described  and  illustrated  in  Plate  27. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  water  closet  on  the  upper  floor  is  not 
vented.  There  is  in  reality  no  danger  whatever  of  the  siphonage  of 
the  water-closet  trap  when  the  fixture  is  located  close  to  its  stack, 
with  no  fixtures  entering  the  stack  on  floors  above,  and  therefore 
there  is  no  necessity  of  venting  it.  Most  plumbing  ordinances  ac- 
knowledge this  fact  by  not  demanding  the  venting  of  water  closets 
thus  located. 

In  connection  with  this  plate,  the  subject  of  rain  leaders  will  be 
considered. 


RAIN    LEADERS 

The  size  of  rain  leaders  should  never  be  less  than  3  in.,  and 
as  much  larger  as  the  roof  area  which  is  drained  should  require. 
Plumbing  ordinances  differ  in  trap  requirements  for  rain  leaders, 

205 


2o6  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

some  requiring  no  leader  trap  when  the  main  trap  is  used,  others 
demanding-  leader  traps  even  though  the  system  is  protected  by  the 
main  trap.  It  goes  without  saying  that  each  rain  leader  should  be 
trapped  on  the  system  which  has  no  main  trap.  It  would  appear 
wise  to  use  the  trap  also  on  systems  provided  with  main  trap.  There 
is  no  danger  in  this  case  of  air  lock  from  double  trapping,  for  this 
trouble  is  obviated  by  the  presence  of  the  fresh-air  inlet.  The  use  of 
the  trap  prevents  foul  odors  from  the  house  drainage  system,  and  pos- 
sible back  pressure  from  the  sewer,  from  finding  their  way  through 
the  rain  leaders  and  conductor  pipes  and  escaping  through  joints 
and  defects  in  the  latter  into  the  rooms  of  the  house  through  open 
windows.  The  usual  method  is  to  run  the  rain  leader,  of  cast  or 
wrought  iron,  from  its  connection  with  the  house  drain  to  a  point 
outside  the  foundation  wall,  where  the  galvanized  iron  conductor 
enters  it.  The  iron  pipe  connection  should  end  not  less  than  5  ft. 
above  the  grade  level.  When  run  entirely  inside  the  building,  they 
must  be  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  and  connected  at  the  roof  by  means 
of  lead  or  copper  pipe  wiped  to  a  brass  ferrule  and  caulked  into  the 
top  of  the  leader,  the  opening  being  protected  by  a  wire  guard  or 
basket.  Whenever  possible,  it  is  better  practice  to  connect  two  or 
more  branch  rain  leaders  into  one  main,  and  place  a  trap  on  this 
main,  rather  than  to  separately  trap  each  leader.  This  method 
guards  the  piping  better,  for  the  reason  that  a  trap  thus  located  is 
more  certain  of  maintaining  its  seal.  In  the  same  way,  and  for  the 
same  reason,  the  rain  leader  may  be  connected  into  a  yard  drain,  the 
two  lines  being  protected  by  one  trap. 

Conductors  run  outside  should  be  one  size  larger  than  required 
for  a  conductor  draining  the  same  area  when  run  inside. 

When  rain  leaders  pass  through  the  foundation  close  to  a  drive- 
way, or  where  there  is  danger  of  being  harmed  by  passing  teams, 
they  should  be  run  up  in  recesses  made  in  the  walls,  and  should  not 
pass  through  the  side  of  the  building  at  a  point  lower  than  12  ft. 
above  the  grade. 

If  there  is  no  sewer  in  the  street  on  which  the  building  is  located, 
its  roof  drainage  should  be  conducted  from  the  leaders  into  a  pipe 
running  below  the  sidewalk  to  the  street  gutter. 

If  the  street  is  provided  with  a  public  surface  sewage  system, 
the  rain  leaders  should  connect  into  the  surface  house  drain,  and  not 
into  the  house  drainage  system.     If  desired,  it  is  proper  to  carry  the 


RAIN    LEADERS  207 

rain  leaders  outside  the  house  and  enter  them  outside  the  main  trap 
into  the  house  sewer.  When  so  run,  they  may  be  of  either  extra- 
heavy  cast-iron  or  glazed-earthenware  pipe,  and  should  be  provided 
with  traps  made  accessible  by  being  located  in  brick  or  stone  wells 
or  manholes.  The  chief  danger  that  confronts  the  rain-leader  trap 
is  the  loss  of  its  seal  during  a  long-continued  drought.  In  traps 
having  only  a  ^^-in.  seal  or  thereabouts,  it  can  be  imagined  that 
evaporation  will  not  be  long  in  causing  its  destruction.  It  would  be 
a  good  idea  to  construct  on  all  rain  leaders,  deep  seal  traps  made  of 
quarter-bends,  in  order  that  a  sufficient  depth  may  be  obtained. 

The  evils  of  evaporation  thus  far  have  been  almost  impossible 
to  remedy,  and  the  only  safe  course  is  to  take  every  possible  precau- 
tion against  it.  There  is  one  point  that  may  be  advanced  in  favor 
of  connecting  the  rain  leaders  inside  the  cellar  wall  with  the  house 
drain,  instead  of  running  them  outside  the  cellar  wall  and  connecting 
them  into  the  house  sewer.  When  connected  inside,  the  rain  water 
during  a  storm  enters  the  house  drain  in  sufficient  quantity  to  thor- 
oughly scour  and  cleanse  the  piping. 

REGULATION    OF    PLUMBING    CONSTRUCTION    IN 
TENEMENT    HOUSES,    LODGING    HOUSES,    ETC. 

Many  of  the  larger  cities  have  found  that  as  the  crowded  condi- 
tions of  the  tenement-house  districts  increase,  special  provisions  must 
be  made  to  meet  these  conditions  in  such  a  manner  that  the  sanitary 
standard  of  these  dwelling  places  may  be  kept  as  high  as  possible. 
Other  conditions  besides  that  of  being  crowded,  such  as  the  unclean- 
liness  and  ignorance  of  many  of  the  inmates  of  these  districts,  make 
special  provisions  a  necessity.  The  following  requirements  with 
others  of  similar  nature,  are  therefore  now  demanded  by  many  of  our 
large  cities. in  their  plumbing  ordinances. 

In  all  such  houses,  and  in  factories  and  workshops  as  well,  there 
should  be  installed  at  least  one  water  closet,  regardless  of  the  small 
number  of  occupants,  and  there  should  be  enough  additional  water 
closets  to  allow  at  least  one  such  fixture  for  each  15  persons. 

In  tenement  and  lodging  houses  there  should  be  not  less  than  one 
water  closet  on  each  floor,  and  whenever  more  than  one  family  occu- 
pies a  single  floor,  there  should  be  at  least  one  additional  water  closet 
for  each  two  additional  families.     In  such  buildings  whenever  there 


2o8  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

are  more  than  15  persons  living  on  the  same  floor,  there  should  be 
an  additional  water  closet  installed  on  that  floor  for  every  15  addi- 
tional persons,  or  fractional  part  of  that  number.  The  water-closet 
compartments  of  tenement  and  lodging  houses,  factories  and  work- 
shops should  be  made  waterproof,  with  marble,  slate,  or  tile.  In 
tenement  houses,  when  the  water  closet  is  used  by  a  single  family 
only,  its  base  must  be  not  less  than  6  in.  high,  and  in  all  other  cases, 
where  it  is  required,  it  should  be. as  high  as  the  seat. 

Water  closet  and  urinal  apartments  of  tenement  and  lodging 
houses  should  in  all  cases  be  provided  with  a  window  opening  into 
the  outer  air,  or  into  a  ventilating  shaft  not  less  than  10  sq.  ft.  in 
area.  The  partitions  separating  the  toilet  from  the  rest  of  the  floor 
space  should  either  extend  to  the  ceiling,  or  the  apartment  be  sealed 
over.  These  partitions  should  be  made  air-tight,  and  the  outside 
partition  be  made  to  include  a  window  opening  into  the  outer  air, 
into  a  ventilating  shaft  or  into  such  a  lighted  area  as  may  be 
approved  by  the  proper  officials.  The  interior  partitions  of  such 
toilet  apartment  should  be  dwarfed  partitions.  The  general  water- 
closet  accommodations  for  a  tenement  or  lodging  house  should  not 
be  allowed  to  be  installed  in  any  cellar,  and  all  such  fixtures  should  be 
open,  and  free  from  any  inclosing  woodwork.  Sinks  of  these  houses 
should  also  be  entirely  open,  and  supported  on  iron  legs  or  brackets, 
without  inclosing  woodwork  of  any  description. 

If  the  water  pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  fill  the  house  tank  of  such 
buildings  as  tenement  and  lodging  houses,  factories  and  workshops, 
power  pumps  should  be  provided.  Cesspools  should  never  be  per- 
mitted in  the  case  of  tenement  and  lodging  houses,  and  the  yards, 
areas,  and  courts  of  such  buildings  should  be  properly  drained  into 
the  sewer. 


Plate  XXXIV 

PLUMBING    FOR    APARTMENT    BUILDING- 
SYSTEMS    OF    HOT-WATER    SUPPLY- 
RANGE    BOILERS,    ETC. 


r^i         w  jr  R/aZ-e  34-. 

R/umb/ng   f^r 

Aparf-nnenl-  Bul/cf/ng 


PLUMBING  FOR  APARTMENT  BUILDING— SYSTEMS  OF 
HOT-WATER    SUPPLY— RANGE    BOILERS,    ETC. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  take  up  the  consideration 
of  either  hot-  or  cold-water  supply  in  a  comprehensive  manner.  There 
are  certain  things,  however,  which  many  of  the  readers  of  this  book 
will  desire  to  know,  and  some  of  these  will  be  briefly  given  at  this 
point. 

The  range  boiler,  to  be  in  keeping  with  the  other  plumbing 
fixtures  of  such  work  as  shown  in  Plate  34,  should  be  of  copper. 
The  galvanized  boiler  has  a  great  advantage  in  first  cost,  but  the 
copper  boiler  will  generally  outlast  several  of  the  galvanized.  On 
contract  work  the  30-gallon  boiler  is  much  used,  but  40  gallons  is 
a  better  size  for  apartment  buildings  having  individual  range  boilers. 

For  residence  work,  boilers  of  larger  capacity  than  40  gallons 
are  often  required.  For  large  apartment  buildings,  office  buildings, 
etc.,  it  is  far  more  satisfactory  and  more  economical  to  provide  a 
large  tank  heated  by  a  special  heater.  This  practice  does  away  with 
the  use  of  a  boiler  for  each  apartment. 

A  method  often  followed  in  the  use  of  the  large  hot-water  tank 
or  boiler,  is  to  provide  it  with  steam  coils  connected  to  the  heating 
system,  by  means  of  which  it  may  be  heated  in  the  winter  time,  a 
small  heater  providing  heat  for  it  during  the  summer  time.  One  of 
the  annoyances  in  this  work  comes  from  carelessness  or  inattention 
to  the  heater  on  the  part  of  the  attendant.  This  may  be  avoided  by 
the  use  of  automatic  tank  regulators,  of  which  there  are  several 
makes  on  the  market.  By  means  of  such  an  appliance,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  boiler  heated  either  by  steam  coils  or  coal-burning  heater, 
or  by  both,  may  be  regulated  to  a  certain  temperature. 

The  size  of  main  necessary  to  supply  the  plumbing  fixtures  for 
a  large  apartment  building,  office  building,  or  other  similar  buildings 
is  a  problem  that  is  often  difficult  to  solve.  The  main  and  branches,, 
if  properly  sized,  will  allow  water  to  be  drawn  at  any  fixture  or  any 
reasonable  number  of  fixtures,  without  affecting  the  free  flow  of  water 
at  other  fixtures.    When  pipes  of  too  small  size  are  used,  however,  the 


212 


MODERN  PLUMBING  ILLUSTRATED 


use  of  water  at  a  single  fixture  will  result  in  a  reduced  flow  at  other 
fixtures.  The  following  will  be  of  service  in  estimating  the  necessary 
size  of  main  to  perform  given  amounts  of  work.  In  the  first  place, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  all  fixtures  are  not  in  use  at  any  one 
time.  The  chances  are  that  in  an  apartment  such  as  shown  in  Plate 
34,  not  more  than  one  fixture  in  the  bath  room  will  be  used  at  any 
one  time,  or  more  than  one  fixture  in  the  kitchen.  Therefore,  in  the 
case  of  apartment  buildings,  the  main  will  be  ample  in  size  if  designed 
to  supply  two  ^-in.  fixture  supplies  per  apartment.  Thus,  if  there 
were  20  apartments,  a  main  having  a  supplying  capacity  equal  to  40 
^-in.  pipes  would  be  of  sufficient  size.  The  following  table  shows 
the  approximate  number  of  >^-in.  pipes  different  larger  sizes  of  pipes 
will  supply: 


I  in. 

lUn. 

2  in. 

2^  in. 

3  in. 

4  in. 

Sin. 

6  in. 

5 

16 

32 

50 

100 

200 

375 

600 

Referring  to  this  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  size  between  2  in. 
and  21/2  in.  will  be  required  to  supply  this  system.  The  2^  in.  would 
be  the  safer  and  better  size,  although  2  in.  would  no  doubt  do  the 
work  satisfactorily.  In  a  great  many  systems  this  question  could 
not  be  figured  out  in  this  way.  For  instance,  in  large  toilet  rooms 
of  hotels,  railroad  stations,  etc.,  the  demand  at  times  is  large  and  at 
other  times  small.  The  main  supply  lines  and  branch  mains  under 
such  conditions  must  be  made  to  supply  maximum  requirements. 

In  supplying  hot  and  cold  water  to  apartment  buildings  and  other 
similar  work,  each  group  of  fixtures  should  be  supplied  by  a  separate 
line.  Thus,  each  kitchen  should  have  its  own  supply,  and  each  bath 
room  also,  each  line  having  a  shut-ofif.  This  avoids  much  annoy- 
ance, for  if  otherwise,  the  making  of  repairs  in  one  flat  might  result 
in  the  shutting  off  of  the  supply  in  others.  On  a  great  deal  of  high- 
grade  work,  faucets  for  the  various  fixtures  are  specified  to  be  of 
the  Fuller  pattern,  and  on  public  work  often  of  some  self-closing 
pattern.  Both  Fuller  and  self-closing  work  closes  very  quickly,  and 
water,  being  almost  incompressible,  forms  a  very  poor  cushion  to 
receive  the  shock.  The  common  result  in  the  use  of  these  two  styles 
of  work  is  a  snapping  and  jarring  of  the  pipes  whenever  the  faucets 
are  closed.  Air  chambers  properly  placed  will  often  entirely  remedy 
this   trouble.      Compression   faucets,   however,   are   much   slower   in 


PLUMBING    FOR    APARTMENT    BUILDING 


213 


closing,  and  from  them  none  of  the  above  annoyances  is  experienced. 
Compression  work  is  not  only  better  many  times  than  Fuller  and 
self-closing  work,  but  it  is  less  expensive. 

Two  systems  of  supply  are  in  general  use:  tank  pressure  and 
street  pressure.  In  the  use  of  range  boilers  on  the  direct  or  street- 
pressure  system,  supplies  are  taken  directly  to  the  boilers,  while  in 
the  use  of  the  tank  system  the  supply  for  the  boilers  is  taken  direct 
to  the  tank  and  from  that  point  delivered  to  the  boilers  below.  The 
result  of  the  tank  method  of  supply  is  a  uniform  pressure,  while 
the  direct  system  gives  a  pressure  which  varies  greatly  according  to 
the  demands  that  are  being  made  upon  it.  Boilers  used  on  tank 
systems  may  usually  be  of  lighter  construction  than  tank  boilers, 
although  this  is  not  true  in  the  case  of  high  buildings.  The  conditions 
in  very  high  buildings  are  of  a  special  nature,  often  requiring  special 
apparatus.  For  instance,  many  office  buildings,  hotels,  etc.,  in  the 
large  cities,  are  of  such  great  height  that  the  pressure  on  the  street 
mains  is  not  sufficient  to  force  water  to  the  upper  floors.  Under 
such  circumstances,  for  those  floors  not  reached  by  direct  pressure, 
a  house  tank  above  all  fixtures  must  be  provided,  into  which  water 
must  be  pumped. 

Large  hot-water  boilers  are  generally  of  the  horizontal  pattern, 
hung  from  the  cellar  timbers  by  heavy  wrought-iron  hangers. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  boilers  of  standard  size  and  make, 
and  their  capacities: 


Size  of  Boiler 

Capacity 

5  ft.  X  12  in.        30  gals 

5  "   X  13  ' 

''        35     " 

5  "  X  14  ' 

'        40    " 

5  "  X  16  ' 

'        52     " 

5  ''  X  18  ' 

66     " 

5  '■'   X  20  ' 

82     " 

5  "   X  22  ' 

100     '' 

5  "  X  24  ' 

'       120     " 

4  "  X  30  '' 

140     " 

6  "   X  24  ' 

144     " 

7  "  X  24  ' 

'       168     " 

Size  of  Boiler 

5  ft.  X  30  in. 
8      "   X  24 

sy2 "  X  30 

6  "   X  30 

4  "  X36 

5  "  X  36 
5K>  "  X  36 

6  "  X  36 

7  "  X  36 

8  "  X  36 


Capacity 

185  gals. 

192 

203 

225 

212 

265 

290 

315 
360 

425 


For  apartment  buildings  such  as  shown  in  Figs.  34  and  35,  the 
construction  of  circulation  work  is  of  very  great  advantage,  as  it  is 
in  almost  any  system  of  plumbing.  On  ordinary  work,  the  hot-water 
supply  is  run  from  the  hot-water  main,  and  ends  at  the  fixture  which 


214  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

it  supplies.  In  circulation  work,  the  supply  is  run  from  the  main 
also,  but  it  is  returned  by  a  circulating  or  return  pipe,  into  the  boiler. 
The  result  is  that  in  the  first  case  a  long  line  of  pipe  filled  with  cold 
water  must  often  have  to  be  drawn  off  before  the  water  will  run  hot, 
while  in  the  use  of  the  circulating  pipe,  the  water  will  run  hot  almost 
at  once.  The  latter  naturally  causes  much  less  annoyance  to  the 
person  desiring  to  draw  hot  water.  The  first  cost  of  circulation  work 
is  greater  than  that  of  ordinary  work,  but  if  the  water  is  metered 
and  paid  for  by  the  cubic  foot,  it  will  be  found  that  circulation  work 
generally  figures  out  a  good  investment. 

In  installing  hot-  and  cold-water  supply  systems  for  large  build- 
ings, it  is  usual  to  supply  headers  which  are  connected  with  the  boiler. 
Separate  headers  are  used  for  the  cold  supply,  hot  supply  and  return. 
The  street  supply  is  connected  with  the  cold-water  header,  and  from 
it  all  cold-water  supply  lines  are  taken  out.  The  flow  pipe  from  the 
boiler  is  connected  into  the  hot-water  header,  and  from  the  header 
all  hot-water  supplies  are  taken  ofT.  All  return  or  circulation  pipes 
are  connected  to  the  return  header,  and  the  latter  connected  to  the 
boiler  return.  Each  line  of  pipe  connecting  with  each  header  should 
be  provided  with  a  stop  and  waste  cock  close  to  the  header,  a  small 
waste  connection  from  each  cock  being  connected  into  a  main  line 
of  waste,  which  should  empty  into  some  convenient  basement  fixture. 
Such  a  waste  should  not  be  connected  directly  into  the  drainage 
system.  Each  line  of  hot-  and  cold-water  supply,  and  each  return 
pipe  should  be  provided  with  a  metal  tag,  showing  what  fixture,  or 
group  of  fixtures,  and  what  floor  it  serves. 

A  keyboard,  as  the  above  arrangement  is  called,  is  a  very  con- 
venient thing,  especially  on  large  work,  and  is  much  used  in  nice 
residences,  apartment  buildings,  office  buildings,  etc. 

In  the  event  of  bursts  or  other  emergencies,  the  keyboard  shows 
at  once  the  valves  that  control  the  piping  that  is  to  be  shut  off,  and 
often  saves  damage  to  the  property  that  would  result  if  the  proper 
valve  could  not  be  found  quickly.  The  use  of  the  valve  waste  allows 
the  contents  of  the  pipe  to  drain  off  into  the  fixture  without  dis- 
charo:ins:  onto  the  cellar  bottom. 

The  foregoing,  as  already  stated,  is  not  meant  as  comprehen- 
sive in  any  way,  but  is  given  simply  in  a  suggestive  manner,  in 
connection  with  the  general  subject  of  drainage  of  different  classes 
of  buildings. 


Plate  XXXV 

PLUMBING     FOR     DOUBLE     APARTMENT 
BUILDINGS— FILTERED  WATER  SUPPLY 


R/umhing    f^r 


Plate  35. 


t=r 


s 


2^0 /-Is  ^^<=>72Z 


PLUMBING    FOR    DOUBLE    APARTMENT    BUILDINGS 

In  Plate  35  are  shown  two  stacks  serving  the  fixtures  of  a  double 
apartment  building,  one  stack  for  the  kitchen  fixtures,  the  other  for 
bath-room  fixtures. 

The  main  lines  of  soil  and  waste  pipes  in  buildings  of  this  class 
may  often  be  run  in  the  mutual  wall  or  partition  which  divides  the 
building  at  the  center.  This  method  centralizes  the  plumbing,  and 
allows  the  work  to  be  installed  at  the  lowest  possible  cost  of  labor 
and  material. 

Lack  of  space  prevents  show^mg  in  this  system  a  line  of  refriger- 
ator waste,  which  should  always  be  provided  in  buildings  of  this 
class.  In  the  more  pretentious  apartment  buildings  a  pantry  sink  is 
often  provided  for  each  aoartment  and  sometimes  one  or  more  bed- 
room lavatories. 

Connected  wnth  the  general  plumbing  arrangements  for  apart- 
ment buildings,  office  buildings,  etc.,  the  matter  of  a  filtered  water 
supply  is  now  demanding  much  attention,  as  also  for  residences,  and 
a  brief  consideration  of  the  subject  will  not  be  out  of  place  at  this 
point. 

FILTERED    WATER    SUPPLY 

There  is  a  constantly  growing  demand  for  filtered  water  supplies 
for  city  buildings  of  nearly  all  classes,  the  demand  increasing  as  the 
country  grows  in  population,  and  as  a  consec[uence  hitherto  pure 
supplies  of  water  become  polluted. 

There  are  two  forms  of  filtration,  that  which  clears  the  water 
of  all  mechanical  impurities,  such  as  rust,  sediment,  etc.,  and  that 
which  not  only  clarifies  the  water,  but  frees  it  of  all  germ  life  and 
renders  it  free  from  the  danger  of  producing  such  diseases  as  typhoid 
fever.  For  commercial  purposes,  for  the  bath  room,  etc.,  the  first- 
named  form  of  filtration  is  sufficient,  but  for  drinking  and  culinary 
purposes,  the  latter  form  should  be  required.  It  is  a  mistaken  idea 
that  the  ordinary  filtration  plant  which  filters  the  supply  for  an  entire 

building  in  every  case  purifies  the  water  of  disease  germs.    The  water 

217 


2i8  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

coming  through  such  apparatus  is  certainly  rendered  purer  as  far  as 
inorganic  matter  is  concerned,  but  a  filter  working  under  pressure 
cannot  deliver  water  so  free  from  the  more  dreaded  disease  germs 
as  the  filter  which  operates  by  the  gravity  of  the  water  passing 
through  it. 

An  ideal  provision  for  the  supply  of  filtered  water  would  include 
the  installation  of  a  pressure  filter  on  the  main  supply  of  the  building, 
to  clarify  and  purify  the  entire  supply  for  the  building  outside  of  the 
supply  for  drinking  purposes,  and  the  installation  of  a  gravity  filter 
supplying  a  separate  system  of  piping  for  drinking  and  culinary 
purposes.  In  place  of  the  latter,  a  form  of  filter  of  excellent  con- 
struction, described  as  follows,  may  be  used.  The  common  form  of 
the  filter  referred  to  is  made  in  different  sizes  for  domestic  use,  filter- 
ing enough  water  during  the  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day  to  provide 
a  liberal  supply  of  drinking  water. 

The  apparatus  is  briefly  as  follows:  Connection  by  means  of 
block-tin  pipe  is  made  to  the  supply  pipe,  the  water  being  conveyed 
to  a  sheet-metal  tank  hung  on  the  wall,  inside  of  which,  and  attached 
to  a  collecting  device,  are  unglazed  porcelain  tubes  filled  with  bone- 
black  or  animal  charcoal.  The  water  is  admitted  to  the  tank  through 
a  ball  cock,  which  admits  it  only  as  fast  as  drawn.  The  water,  by 
means  of  its  own  gravity  only,  filters  through  the  tubes  and  their 
contents,  and  flows  into  the  collector  to  which  the  tubes  are  connected 
by  rubber  connectors.  From  the  collector  the  filtered  water  runs 
down  into  a  glass  globe  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  from 
^\'hich  the  water  may  be  drawn  as  required. 

In  most  of  the  large  cities  will  be  found  companies  operating 
this  and  other  domestic  filters,  who  inspect,  clean,  and  sterilize  the 
apparatus  each  month.  Upon  the  periodical  attention  given  to  filters 
depends  their  satisfactory  operation.  If  no  attention  is  given  them, 
after  a  time  the  tubes  clog  up  and  refuse  to  filter,  or  if  filtration 
continues  it  is  under  very  unsafe  conditions,  as  all  water  passing 
through  must  come  in  contact  with  the  thick  covering  of  sediment 
and  impurities  collected  on  the  outside  of  the  tubes.  This  same  style 
of  filter  in  a  modified  form,  can  be  made  to  produce  any  amount  of 
pure  water  desired  per  day,  and  is  made  use  of  extensively  for  pro- 
viding the  drinking  supply  of  hotels,  restaurants,  hospitals,  and  other 
institutions  which  desire  nothing  but  a  pure  quality  of  drinking  water. 
•  On  large  work,  the  empty  tubes  are  placed  in  large  copper  tanks, 


FILTERED    WATER    SUPPLY  219 

supplied  through  a  ball  cock,  and  the  water  after  filtering  through 
the  tubes  is  conveyed  from  the  collectors  into  other  smaller  tanks 
filled  with  animal  charcoal.  The  double  filtration  is  done  entirely  by 
gravity,  and  produces  a  perfectly  pure  water.  The  animal  charcoal 
is  placed  in  separate  tanks  on  large  work,  simply  to  economize  labor 
in  cleaning.  If  the  water  delivered  to  filters  of  this  class  first  passes 
through  the  house  pressure  filter,  much  of  the  heavier  matter  in 
suspension,  sediment,  etc.,  will  be  taken  out,  rendering  less  frequent 
attention  to  the  gravity  filter  necessary. 

Pressure  filters  are  of  various  form  and  make,  using  many  differ- 
ent materials  for  the  filtering  medium.  When  stone  or  porcelain  of 
a  fine  quality  is  used  as  the  filtering  medium,  a  very  large  percentage 
of  the  germ  impurities  may  be  removed.  A  very  important  feature  of 
all  pressure  filters  is  the  matter  of  frequent  cleansing,  which  is  abso- 
lutely essential.  Certain  makes  of  pressure  filters  depend  upon  large 
masses  of  bone-black  for  their  filtering  material,  and  experimental 
tests  show  this  to  be  one  of  the  most  effective  filtering  mediums. 

One  form  of  bone-black  filter  consists  of  two  separate  cylinders 
filled  with  bone-black,  but  so  connected  that  by  the  use  of  a  device 
known  as  a  manipulator,  the  entire  filter  may  be  switched  ofT  from  the 
house  it  supplies ;  or  the  water  supply  may  be  divided  and  sent  through 
each  cylinder  equally ;  or  the  water  may  be  sent  through  each  cylinder 
in  succession,  thus  filtering  the  same  water  twice;  or  the  water  may 
be  filtered  through  either  cylinder  alone  without  effecting  in  any  way 
the  supply  of  filtered  water  to  the  building  supplied.  Thus  in  this  fil- 
ter, as  in  the  one  previously  described,  each  cylinder  may  be  washed  by 
filtered  water  from  the  other,  and  while  the  entire  filter  is  thus  being 
cleaned,  the  supply  to  the  house  is  not  cut  off  or  afifected  in  any  way. 

Experiment  has  shown  that  the  effectiveness  of  a  filtering 
medium  depends  directly  upon  the  amount  of  air  space  contained 
between  its  particles.  This  is  the  reason  that  porous  stone,  porcelain, 
and  such  materials  do  such  excellent  filtering.  Sand  contains  a  great 
deal  of  air  also,  but  it  is  claimed  that  bone-black  contains  nearly 
twice  as  much  as  sand,  owing  to  the  packing  together  of  the  latter. 
The  action  of  filtration  depends  upon  the  action  of  infinite  numbers 
of  bacteria  which  live  and  multiply  in  the  air  spaces  of  the  filtering 
medium.  These  bacteria  must  have  air  in  order  to  perform  their 
work,  and  air  will  not  penetrate  in  sufficient  quantity  through  sand 
to  feed  them  at  a  depth  of  more  than  three  or  four  feet.     Air  will 


220  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

penetrate  much  more  thoroughly  through  bone-black,  it  is  claimed^ 
and  therefore  this  material  is  preferable  for  filter  use. 

The  bone-black  filter  described  above  is  cleaned  by  forcing  com- 
pressed air  into  the  mass  of  bone-black,  thus  breaking  it  up  into 
particles,  after  which  the  flow  of  filtered  water  is  sent  through  the 
material,  thoroughly  cleansing  it,  and  carrying  it  off  into  the  waste. 

In  the  use  of  sand  in  pressure  filters,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a 
coagulating  agent,  owing  to  the  closeness  with  which  the  sand  packs. 
For  this  purpose  alum  is  generally  used,  and  its  action  is  to  coagulate 
the  sediment  and  other  impurities  of  the  water  into  such  large  masses 
that  they  cannot  pass  through  the  sand.  While  the  use  of  alum  is 
not  ordinarily  harmful,  it  is  not  desirable,  and  it  makes  the  water 
hard,  which  is  undesirable  for  many  manufacturing  purposes. 

A  great  many  forms  of  pressure  filters  are  now  made,  most  of 
them  using  either  sand,  bone-black,  porcelain  or  stone  as  the  filtering 
medium,  and  being  provided  with  a  variety  of  apparatus  and  methods 
for  cleansing. 

There  are  three  methods  of  providing  a  storage  of  filtered  water, 
each  having  advantages  of  its  own. 

Storage  by  means  of  the  closed  overhead  tank  is  mostly  used. 
The  delivery  pipe  from  filter  to  tank  also  answers  as  the  down  supply 
for  the  building,  thus  efifecting  a  saving  in  pipe.  An  air  vent  at  the 
top  allows  air  to  pass  into  and  out  of  the  tank,  but  prevents  overflow. 
In  this  system  no  impurities  can  reach  the  water,  which  is  not  true 
of  the  open-tank  system. 

Storage  by  the  open  gravity  tank  is  often  the  most  convenient 
to  install  in  houses  already  provided  with  an  attic  tank. 

The  open  gravity  tank  is  used  when  the  filtered  supply  must  be 
forced  into  it  by  a  pump. 

The  pressure,  or  compression  system  is  also  much  used.  Only 
pressure  tanks  should  be  used  for  this  work,  as  others  will  not  hold 
air  sufficiently  well  to  produce  the  desired  compression. 

The  pressure  tank  is  placed  close  to  the  filter  into  which  the 
latter  delivers  filtered  water,  and  from  the  tank  the  house  supply  is 
taken,  under  pressure.  When  the  tank  is  filled  to  its  full  capacity 
with  water  under  air  compression,  the  compression  stops  the  action 
of  the  filter  until  water  is  drawn.  The  chief  drawback  to  the  use  of 
this  system  is  the  use  of  tanks  of  too  small  capacity  to  provide  a 
sufficient  reserve  supply  of  filtered  water. 


Plate  XXXVI 

PLUMBING    FOR    OFFICE    BUILDINGS 


_. ,         ,  .  _  R/ote  36. 

H/umbing  f^r 

Office    IBui/ding 


e7o>7e/ 


"^ 


<i7o22e/ 


Si^re: 


G^/^^e 


oJ^JIe/- 


<^2J2,h. 


G^^lle/ 


PLUMBING    FOR    OFFICE    BUILDINGS 

The  plumbing  for  office  buildings  is  naturally  varied,  but  consists 
largely  of  lines  of  lavatories  and  toilet  rooms,  both  public  and  private, 
successive  floors  often  being  duplicates.  The  continuous  vent  prin- 
ciple may  often  be  applied  to  lines  of  fixtures  in  office  buildings  to 
the  benefit  of  the  plumbing  system  and  with  a  saving  over  common 
methods  in  both  material  and  labor.  In  office  buildings  and  other 
buildings  containing  many  stories,  the  following  limitations  in  the 
size  of  soil-pipe  stacks  should  be  observed. 

Regardless  of  the  small  number  of  fixtures  that  may  enter  it,  a 
soil-pipe  stack  in  any  building  between  five  and  twelve  stories  in 
height  should  not  be  less  than  5  in.  in  diameter,  and  in  buildings  of 
more  than  twelve  stories,  this  size  should  never  be  less  than  6  in. 

For  sizes  of  main  vent  lines,  the  following  regulations  should 
be  adhered  to : 

Main  vent  lines  for  water  closets  on  three  or  more  floors  should 
not  be  less  than  3  in.  in  diameter ;  a  main  vent  line  for  fixtures  other 
than  water  closets  on  less  than  seven  floors  should  be  not  less  than 
2  in. ;  for  less  than  nine  stories  3-in.  main  vent ;  for  nine  to  sixteen 
stories,  4-in.  main  vent;  for  sixteen  to  twenty-two  stories,  5-in,  main 
vent;  for  twenty-two  stories  and  up,  6-in.  main  vent  should  be  used. 
These  requirements  result  in  centralizing  the  plumbing,  as  it  would 
become  an  expensive  matter  to  run  large  stacks  through  many  stories 
simply  to  provide  for  a  few  fixtures. 

Whenever  water  closets  are  located  on  different  floors,   as   in 

Plate  36,  they  should  each  be  vented,  with  the  exception  of  the  top 

water  closet.     When  two  water  closets,  however,  are  located  close 

together  on  the  same  floor,  it  is  not  essential  to  vent  both  fixtures 

if  they  waste  into  the  same  Y  branch.     It  is  sufficient  to  prevent 

siphonage,  to  vent  only  the  water  closet  that  is  the  farther  from  the 

stack.     When  two  water  closets  discharge  into  a  double  fitting,   a 

mutual  vent  may  be  taken  from  a  hub  near  the  junction  of  the  two 

branches.     Fittings  of  this  kind  are  easily  obtained,  and  it  will  be 

seen  that  the  one  vent  taken  from  this  point  vents  both  the  fixtures. 

223 


224  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

Many  plumbing  ordinances  call  for  the  venting  of  all  water 
closets  except  a  water  closet  above  which  no  other  fixtures  enter. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  very  difficult  to  siphon  a  water-closet  trap 
even  partially,  by  the  discharge  of  other  fixtures  than  water  closets. 
Therefore,  it  does  not  seem  necessary  to  vent  any  water  closet  which 
is  the  only  fixture  of  its  kind  on  the  stack,  provided  the  water  closet 
is  within  3  ft.  of  the  stack.  For  the  same  reason  it  does  not  seem 
necessary  to  vent  either  of  two  water  closets  discharging  into  a  double 
fitting,  and  located  on  the  same  floor  close  to  the  stack,  if  other  water 
closets  do  not  discharge  into  the  same  stack.  Judgment  must  be  used 
in  these  instances,  however,  for  batteries  of  fixtures  such  as  lava- 
tories might  be  located  on  the  same  stack  as  a  single  water  closet, 
and  be  able  to  throw  enough  waste  into  the  stack  to  endanger  the 
water  closet. 

If  it  could  be  depended  upon  that  people  of  high  intelligence 
were  always  to  install  the  plumbing  system,  and  also  that  in  every 
case  they  could  be  depended  upon  to  install  the  work  honestly,  there 
are  many  conditions  constantly  arising  under  which  a  safe  piece  of 
work  could  be  constructed  without  the  necessity  of  venting,  whereas 
venting  under  the  circumstances  is  required  by  ordinance.  Because 
dependence  of  this  nature  cannot  be  made,  iron-clad  rules  must  be 
adopted  to  make  the  attainment  of  perfect  work  a  surety. 


Plate  XXXVII 

PLUMBING    FOR    PUBLIC    TOILET    ROOMS 
CAUSES    OF    SIPHONAGE    IN    THE    UN- 
VENTED     PLUMBING     SYSTEM 


F-^lumbing   r^r 


a  2  2^     V<ZT^/ 


V(zj^/- 


x-r 


^ 


N      -I      •>         ?  V 


"^T 


-^     y    ->     ^     \  \\ 


<9^jr  e  <:s2?k^2T*  Q^2  zj.  e 


f/'g-  C. 


PLUMBING    FOR    PUBLIC    TOILET    ROOMS 

The  public  toilet  room  of  to-day  is  a  far  more  sanitary  institu- 
tion than  that  of  a  few  years  ago.  This  is  due  not  to  one  thing  only, 
but  to  several. 

The  methods  and  practices  of  installing  such  work  are  superior 
to  those  of  times  past;  the  manufacturer  has  improved  the  construc- 
tion and  quality  of  fixtures  in  a  wonderful  manner;  and  a  plentiful 
supply  of  light  and  thorough  ventilation  are  provided. 

The  floor  of  the  public  toilet  room,  formerly  of  wood,  which  soon 
became  reeking  with  filth,  is  now  of  tile  or  waterproof  material,  and 
adds  beauty  to  the  room.  To  provide  for  the  thorough  washing  out 
of  the  room,  one  or  more  floor  drains  should"  be  installed  in  each 
such  room.  For  this  purpose,  an  excellent  device  is  that  shown  in 
Fig.  B,  Plate  i6.  It  can  be  flushed  thoroughly  with  hot  water  when 
desired,  and  thus  kept  in  a  clean  condition.  An  important  feature 
of  the  sanitary  public  toilet  room  is  the  thorough  ventilation  of  the 
room.  In  order  to  succeed  in  providing  perfect  ventilation,  means 
must  be  provided  for  bringing  in  a  supply  of  fresh  air  if  foul  air  is 
to  be  drawn  out.  In  Fig.  B  of  Plate  37  is  shown  a  method  much 
employed  in  providing  this  ventilation.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  foul- 
air  duct  is  run  at  the  bottom  of  the  room,  each  fixture  stall  or  com- 
partment being  connected  to  it  by  means  of  a  small  register  opening 
into  the  flue. 

This  flue  should  be  connected  with  a  flue  constantly  heated,  or 
may  be  provided  at  its  outer  end  with  an  exhaust  fan.  As  the  foul 
air  is  thus  exhausted,  fresh  air  enters  the  room  at  various  points 
near  the  ceiling,  through  registers  opening  into  a  fresh-air  duct. 

If  sufficient  fresh  air  does  not  enter  through  the  flue  by  natural 
means,  a  fan  may  be  employed  to  force  in  a  sufficient  suppl}^  Fig.  C 
shows  in  section  the  arrangement  of  flues,  from  which  it  will  be 
seen  that  they  are  generally  run  in  a  space  behind  the  partition, 
against  which  the  fixtures  are  set.  Very  often  the  tanks  for  the 
water  closets  and  urinals  are  also  concealed  in  this  space,  as  shown 
in  Plate  38.  In  the  case  of  large  toilet  rooms,  these  flues  may  be 
continued  for  any  desired  distance,  and  on  different  sides  of  the  room. 

227 


228  AIODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

It  will  be  found  desirable  to  allow  openings  in  both  foul-  and 
fresh-air  ducts  at  intervals  during  their  course  outside  of  the  fixture- 
stall  openings.  In  this  way  a  perfect  exhaust  of  foul  air  and  entrance 
of  fresh  air  may  be  maintained,  and  the  air  of  the  room  kept  as  nearly 
pure  as  possible  for  the  air  of  a  room  of  this  character  to  be  kept. 
In  rooms  of  this  nature,  a  change  of  air  once  in  fifteen  minutes  should 
be  provided  for.  In  proportioning  the  area  of  these  ducts,  about  24 
sq.  in.  of  duct  area  should  ordinarily  be  allowed  for  each  urinal,  water 
closet,  and  slop  sink,  and  about  one  half  this  amount  for  such  fixtures 
as  lavatories,  and  the  effective  area  of  ventilation  through  the  regis- 
ters should  be  of  the  respective  amount  for  each  fixture  named.  It  is 
better  practice  to  raise  all  partitions  of  fixture  compartments  off  the 
floor  in  public  toilet  room  work,  as  there  is  then  no  opportunity  for  the 
collection  of  dirt  and  filth  about  the  bases.  If  located  in  such  a  place 
that  outside  light  cannot  enter  the  toilet  room,  it  should  be  lighted 
as  thoroughly  as  possible  from  a  light  shaft  or  skylight,  through 
windows  opening  into  a  lighted  room,  or  by  artificial  means.  Water- 
closet  compartments  are  generally  about  7  ft.  in  height  above  the 
floor,  and  urinal  stalls  about  4  ft.  and  6  or  8  in.  The  best  practice 
in  the  construction  of  toilet  rooms  to  be  used  by  the  public,  such  as  to 
be  found  in  hotels,  schools,  factories,  etc.,  calls  for  the  use  of  the 
individual  water  closet.  The  range  water  closet  as  constructed  and 
provided  for  to-day,  is  certainly  far  superior  to  the  old  style  con- 
struction, but  the  fact  remains  that  in  its  use  there  is  greater  danger 
of  infection,  and  it  is  more  difficult  to  keep  the  air  of  the  room  pure 
when  ranges  are  used,  as  excreta  must  remain  in  the  bowl  until  the 
automatic  flush  acts,  whereas  in  the  use  of  individual  tank  water 
closets  this  is  carried  away  immediately  after  the  fixture  has  been 
used.  If  the  range  is  to  be  used,  however,  a  large  foul-air  flue  should 
be  provided  at  the  end  of  the  range,  and  entered  into  a  heated  flue 
capable  of  producing  a  strong  draught  on  the  foul-air  flue. 

It  is  quite  customary  to  provide  public  comfort  stations  and  toilet 
rooms  with  drinking  fountains  placed  in  close  proximity  to  other 
fixtures.  It  would  seem  preferable  and  more  cleanly  to  place  this 
fixture  outside  of  the  toilet  room,  where  it  will  not  be  in  the  midst 
of  foul  and  impure  odors. 

The  only  sanitary  drinking  fountain  is  that  in  which  no  drinking 
cup  is  required. 

Drinking  fountains  of  this  type  are  now  much  used,  the  water 


CAUSES    OF    SIPHONAGE  229 

issuing  through  bubbhng  cups  which  may  be  adjusted  to  give  any- 
desired  amount  of  water.  The  user  simply  places  his  mouth  over 
the  stream  coming  from  the  bubbling  cup,  his  mouth  coming  in  con- 
tact with  nothing  but  the  water.  The  ordinary  fountain  with  its 
common  drinking  cup  is  unsanitary  and  a  successful  agent  for  the 
spreading  of  many  diseases.  These  fountains  are  made  singly  in 
pedestal  form,  and  in  batteries  of  any  number  of  bubbling  cups,  the 
latter  being  especially  desirable  for  school  use. 

In  the  installation  of  long  lines  of  lavatories,  each  lavatory  should 
be  provided  with  its  own  trap,  and  separately  vented.  The  use  of  a 
common  waste  pipe  extending  the  whole  length  of  a  long  battery 
of  lavatories  to  a  trap  at  the  end  is  to  be  considered  very  poor  prac- 
tice. It  leaves  a  long  line  of  foul  waste  pipe  to  send  its  odors  into 
the  room  through  each  waste  connection  into  it. 

In  order  to  economize  space,  it  often  becomes  necessary  to  locate 
a  double  battery  of  lavatories  at  the  center  of  the  public  toilet  room,  a 
matter  that  is  usually  difficult  owing  to  the  impossibility  usually,  of 
running  the  waste  and  vent  pipes  concealed,  as  is  desirable  in  work 
of  this  kind.  Fig.  A  shows  a  method  of  accomplishing  this  result, 
which  is  considered  further  in  connection  with  Plate  38. 

CAUSES    OF    SIPHONAGE    IN    THE    UNVENTED 
PLUMBING    SYSTEM 

Under  the  subject  of  venting,  taken  up  under  Plate  11,  it  was 
seen  that  the  trap  seal  may  be  lost  by  siphonage,  the  latter  action 
following  the  formation  in  the  drainage  system  of  a  vacuum  or  par- 
tial vacuum.  Some  of  the  ways  in  which  this  vacuum  may  be  formed 
in  the  drainage  system  that  is  not  provided  with  a  system  of  trap 
vents,  are  considered  in  the  following. 

Siphonage  of  a  trap  may  be  caused  by  the  outflow  of  the  waste 
from  its  own  fixture,  the  momentum  of  which  is  sometimes  sufficient 
to  suck  out  a  large  part  of  the  seal.  When  two  fixture  wastes  branch 
into  the  same  pipe,  the  passage  of  the  waste  from  one  fixture  may 
fill  the  pipe  sufficiently  to  produce  a  vacuum  behind  the  column  of 
waste,  and  thus  siphon  out  the  seal  of  the  other  trap. 

A  fixture  having  a  long  line  of  horizontal  waste  is  often  en- 
dangered by  a  partial  temporary  stoppage  in  the  horizontal  part  of 
the  waste.    When  this  stoppage  is  relieved,  the  waste  filling  the  pipe 


23Q  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

may  flow  oft"  so  strongly  as  to  produce  a  vacuum  behind  it  and  cause 
siphonage.  This  is  true  even  of  the  water  closet.  The  passage  of 
a  heavy  volume  of  waste  down  a  vertical  stack  may  produce  a  partial 
vacuum  at  the  entrance  into  the  stack  of  another  fixture,  causing  the 
trap  of  the  latter  to  lose  its  seal.  Eixtures  at  the  foot  of  a  stack  are 
more  open  to  the  danger  of  trap  siphonage  than  those  nearer  the  top 
of  the  stack.  As  the  lower  floors  are  reached,  more  waste  fills  the 
stack  than  at  points  farther  up,  and  as  this  heavy  volume  of  waste 
strikes  the  horizontal  line  it  is  naturally  impeded,  and  more  nearly 
fills  the  pipe,  with  a  consequent  greater  danger  of  producing  a  vacuum 
followed  by  the  siphonage  of  trap  seals. 

These  conditions  that  have  been  described  are  the  cause  of  many 
of  the  rules  regulating  the  construction  of  plumbing,  such  as  the 
prohibition  of  quarter-bends  on  the  drainage  system,  for  instance, 
the  use  of  which  would  impede  the  outflow  of  waste  far  more  than 
the  Y  branch  and  eighth-bend  form  of  connection  between  vertical 
and  horizontal  lines. 


Plate  XXXVIII 

PLUMBING    FOR    PUBLIC    TOILET    ROOMS 


fC;^ 


r^,  ,  .  /.  /=^/a/-e  38, 

Hlumbing    f^r 

Rublic  T<=>//e/'  Ro<:>ms 


PLUMBING    FOR    PUBLIC    TOILET    ROOMS 

In  Fig.  A  of  Plate  37  and  Fig.  E  of  Plate  38  are  shown  two 
views,  front  and  end,  of  double  batteries  of  lavatories  installed  at  the 
center  of  the  public  toilet  room,  or  in  such  location  that  no  partition 
may  be  used  for  concealing  the  waste  and  vent  piping. 

Each  individual  lavatory  is  separately  trapped  and  provided  with 
a  continuous  vent,  this  work  showing  the  principle  of  continuous 
venting  applied  somewhat  differently  than  in  Plates  26,  27,  and  28, 
though  with  equal  eft'ectiveness.  In  Fig.  A,  Plate  37,  it  is  intended 
to  show  the  main  horizontal  waste  pipe  run  above  the  floor,  while  in 
Fig.  E,  Plate  38,  the  main  is  run  below  the  floor,  and  branch  wastes 
connected  from  each  fixture. 

Either  method  that  is  most  desirable  may  be  used.  The  chief 
feature  of  this  work  is  the  concealment  of  the  main  vent  line  and 
branch  vents  inside  a  box  formed  by  the  marble  backs  of  the  two 
lines  of  fixtures,  and  a  piece  of  marble  set  on  top.  The  marble  box 
runs  the  entire  length  of  the  line,  which  may  rise  vertically  to  run  to 
a  vertical  vent  stack  at  any  intermediate  point,  as  in  Fig.  A,  or  at 
either  end.  The  lavatories  in  both  illustrations  are  of  porcelain  or 
porcelain-lined  ware,  and  supported  on  cast-iron  standards.  In  Fig. 
A,  the  marble  backs  run  down  to  the  floor,  allowing  all  but  the  traps 
to  be  concealed  in  the  space  between  the  two  marble  back  slabs,  while 
in  the  case  of  Fig.  E  the  space  below  the  lavatories  is  open,  and  a 
part  of  the  work  is  in  sight. 

The  use  of  continuous  vents  is  of  great  advantage  in  this  in- 
stance, as  it  not  only  allows  the  work  to  be  done  in  a  more  sanitary 
manner,  more  neatly  and  compactly  than  by  ordinary  methods,  but 
at  far  less  cost  of  labor  and  material.  This  last  advantage  is  gained 
in  the  use  of  continuous  vents  on  nearly  all  work  where  fixtures 
back  up  to  each  other  in  pairs,  whether  under  such  circumstances 
as  these  or  on  opposite  sides  of  a  partition. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  it  is  not  difficult  to  so  construct 

the  toilet  room  that  much  of  the  work  may  be  concealed  in  open 

spaces  behind  partitions. 

233 


234  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

In  Fig.  C,  for  instance,  the  flush  valves  for  a  Hne  of  water  closets 
may  be  thus  concealed,  and  as  in  Fig.  D,  the  flush  tanks,  whether 
high  or  low,  and  the  horizontal  soil  pipe  may  both  be  concealed. 

Concealment  of  working  parts,  such  as  flush  valves  and  tanks, 
with  their  chains  and  pulls,  is  often  very  desirable,  especially  in  school 
and  factory  work,  where  there  is  danger  of  damage  due  to  mischiev- 
ous tampering  with  such  devices.  When  so  concealed,  however,  the 
working  parts  should  be  made  accessible  for  repairs  and  inspection. 

The  use  of  the  circuit  system  of  venting  is  often  of  much  advan- 
tage in  public  toilet  rooms,  especially  in  connection  with  lines  of  water 
closets.  It  is  applied  in  the  case  of  Fig.  A,  and  might  be  applied  to 
equal  advantage  in  Fig.  D. 

The  choice  of  water  closets  for  public  toilet-room  work  is  almost 
unlimited,  if  the  matter  of  expense  is  not  to  be  considered.  Fig.  D 
shows  a  very  desirable  form  in  many  respects.  It  is  so  constructed 
that  it  fits  squarely  into  the  corner  made  by  the  partition,  and  may 
be  made  much  more  firm  and  secure  against  accidental  blows  by 
being  bolted  both  to  the  floor  and  to  the  partition.  It  has  a  rear 
outlet  which  allows  the  soil  pipe  to  be  run  above  the  floor.  This 
method  of  running  the  soil  pipe  and  connecting  the  water  closets  is 
of  special  value  in  fire-proof  buildings  and  for  public  buildings  of 
various  kinds.  The  soil  pipe  is  supported  on  standards,  the  entire 
work  presenting  a  very  neat  appearance.  In  Fig.  B  a  very  con- 
venient form  of  water  closet  is  shown,  provided  with  a  large  local 
vent  connection,  which  is  a  part  of  the  bowl  itself.  This  local  vent 
connection  gives  a  much  more  finished  appearance  to  the  fixture  than 
a  connection  made  with  metal  pipe.  The  connection  is  designed  to 
project  into  a  foul-air  flue  located  back  of  the  partition  against  which 
the  water  closets  are  set. 

When  water  closets  of  public  toilet  rooms  are  flushed  by  indi- 
vidual flush  tanks,  the  capacity  of  the  latter  should  not  be  less  than 
for  other  uses,  that  is,  not  less  than,  of  5  gallons  capacity. 

When  supplied  from  an  automatic  flush  tank,  however,  the  latter 
should  be  of  such  capacity  that  each  water  closet  on  the  line  shall 
be  flushed  by  at  least  four  gallons  of  water  at  each  discharge  of 
the  tank. 

All  lip  urinals,  water  closets,  and  slop  sinks  used  in  public  toilet 
rooms  should  be  of  the  flushing-rim  type,  this  form  of  fixture  being 
flushed  and  cleansed  more  thoroughly  than  others. 


Plate  XXXIX 

PLUMBING    FOR    BATH    ESTABLISHMENT- 
TANKS   FOR   STORAGE   AND  SUPPLY 


f^/umb/ng   /"^/^ 

Bof'h  Establi^hmen/' 


^ 


c27oy^e/ 


C'='7zcrefe 

<S?rJ.2TZ  771271^ 


SJz^?re.T  J^o/J^<s 


PLUMBING    FOR    BATH    ESTABLISHMENT 

Systems  of  plumbing  such  as  that  shown  in  Plate  39  are  to  be 
found  in  Turkish-bath  establishments,  clubs,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  buildings, 
and  in  other  like  institutions.  Such  a  system  usually  includes  a  num- 
ber of  shower-bath  compartments,  other  compartments  for  tub  baths, 
swimming  pool,  lines  of  lavatories,  and  ample  toilet  arrangements. 

A  very  important  feature  in  the  bath  establishment  is  the  liberal 
use  of  floor  drains,  for  a  great  deal  of  water  naturally  falls  upon 
the  floors;  and  in  addition,  abundant  opportunity  must  be  provided 
for  flushing  and  thoroughly  cleansing.  Owing  to  impurities  washed 
from  the  skin,  the  bath  rooms  of  an  establishment  of  this  kind  may 
become  exceedingly  filthy  unless  constant  attention  is  given  them. 
For  this  reason  many  such  bath  rooms  are  supplied  with  flushing- 
rim  floor  drains  provided  with  hot-  and  cold-water  connections,  which 
are  very  effectual  in  keeping  such  drains  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

All  floors  and  walls  of  bath  establishments  should  be  of  tile  or 
waterproof  material.  The  walls  and  ceilings  should  never  be  cov- 
ered with  any  material  that  may  absorb  moisture  and  odors. 

Generally  the  waste  from  a  line  of  shower  baths  is  carried  off 
in  a  gutter  at  the  rear  of  the  stalls,  the  stall  floors  being  graded  so 
that  all  water  will  flow  into  the  gutter. 

The  gutter  may  be  formed  in  the  floor  itself  or  of  slate  or  marble 
set  into  the  floor  for  this  purpose,  or  it  may  be  of  cast  iron.  The 
gutter  should  be  graded  to  its  outlet.  The  outlet  should  connect  into 
a  cast  or  wrought-iron  waste  line,  and  be  provided  with  a  trap,  the 
size  of  which  should  be  determined  by  the  number  of  shower  baths 
which  are  served,  the  size  generally  being  from  2  to  4  in. 

This  trap  should  be  provided  with  a  2-in.  vent  and  cleanouts. 

The  plunge  or  swimming  pool  should  waste  through  a  4-in.  trap, 
provided  with  a  2-in.  vent  and  cleanouts  of  the  same  size  as  the  trap. 
The  bottom  of  the  pool  should  be  graded  toward  the  outlet  end.  The 
swimming  pool  should  be  provided  with  ladders  reaching  down  into 
it,  and  a  brass  hand  rail  running  completely  around  it. 

The  water  of  the  swimming  pool,  when  constantly  in  use,  should 
be  changed  at  least  once  in  seven  hours. 

237. 


238  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

Although  not  seen  in  Plate  39,  the  swimming  pool  should  be 
provided  with  an  overflow.  The  plunge  bath  is  now  to  be  found 
occasionally  in  the  basement  of  fine  residences,  and  the  use  of  shower 
apparatus  of  extensive  nature  has  become  a  common  feature  of  high- 
grade  and  well-appointed  bath  rooms.  In  some  sections,  where  the 
water  supply  is  not  remarkably  clear,  the  filtering  of  the  water  used 
in  the  bath  establishment  will  be  found  to  add  much  to  its  luxuries. 
As  in  the  case  of  other  public  toilet  rooms,  it  sometimes  becomes 
necessary  to  provide  a  storage  of  water  to  be  used  at  such  times  as 
the  regular' supply  is  inadequate. 

Concerning  the  iise  of  tanks,  the  following  remarks  may  be  of 
value : 

TANKS    FOR    STORAGE    AND    SUPPLY 

Formerly  the  attic  tank,  which  supplied  the  house  with  water 
under  tank  pressure,  was  of  large  size,  holding  several  hundred  gal- 
lons. To-day,  however,  much  smaller  tanks  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
They  are  supplied  with  a  ball  cock,  thus  allowing  water  to  enter  the 
tank  at  the  same  rate  that  it  is  drawn  out. 

The  storage  tank,  although  it  may  be  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose and  in  the  same  way  as  the  common  attic  tank,  is  generally 
used  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  pressure  system  of  supply,  and  may  be 
of  any  size,  from  a  capacity  of  a  few  hundred  gallons  to  many  thou- 
sands. These  tanks  should  be  of  wood  or  iron,  or  of  wood  lined 
with  heavy  tinned  sheet  copper. 

The  best  materials  for  wooden  tanks  are  cypress,  white  and 
yellow  pine,  cypress  being  the  most  satisfactory. 

The  storage  tank  should  be  supported  on  heavy  iron  beams 
which  will  not  sag  under  the  immense  weight  of  the  tank  and  its 
contents. 

In  many  cases  the  storage  tank  must  be  placed  above  the  point 
that  the  pressure  supply  can  reach.  Its  supply  must  then  be  pumped 
into  it.  In  high  buildings  it  often  happens  that  during  the  day  time, 
when  the  mains  are  being  heavily  drawn  on,  the  street  pressure  is 
not  sufBcient  to  force  water  into  the  tank,  but  during  the  night  it  is 
sufncient.  A  supply  can  thus  be  stored  at  night  for  use  during  the 
day  time  on  those  floors  not  reached  by  the  city  pressure. 

Tanks  should  always  be  covered  in  order  to  keep  out  dust,  foul 
gases,  and  odors. 


Plate  XL 

PLUMBING    FOR    ENGINE    HOUSE    AND 
STABLES— FACTORY    PLUMBING 


Mlumbinq  f'=>r 

Engine  ri'=*use      ^•^s.e/c.c,2s 


(O^J-OO^^ 


/ 


^^ 


^ 


.a 


}Vas2z  (^27zJ2 


^22Zh 


^ 


-T 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 


oJozzce/s        JVc7c5l?:,  Q^iizJz 


PLUMBING   FOR    ENGINE   HOUSE   AND    STABLES 

In  Plate  40  is  shown  the  elevation  of  a  system  of  plumbing  for 
an  engine  house.  The  same  style  of  work  may  also  be  used  in 
private  stables. 

In  addition  to  the  connections  shown,  there  are  usually  toilet 
accommodations  for  the  hostler,  in  the  case  of  the  stable,  and  bath 
rooms  and  toilet  fixtures  for  the  eno'ine  house.  Floor  drains  should 
be  placed  in  the  apparatus  room,  wash  rooms,  hose  tower,  etc.  The 
construction  and  connection  of  stall  sinks  is  shown  in  detail  by 
Plate  10.     Two  adjacent  stall  sinks  may  be  served  by  the  same  trap. 

The  plumbing  system  for  a  stable  should  be  provided  with  the 
same  sanitary  features  as  for  the  house  system.  A  separate  main 
drain  should  be  provided  for  it  to  the  street  sewer,  which  should  not 
be  connected  with  the  house  drain  of  any  building. 

Even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  more  or  less  solid 
matter  from  the  stalls  will  find  its  way  into  the  drain,  and  the  fol- 
lowing provision  is  of  advantage.  All  wastes  from  stables,  includ- 
ing waste  from  wash  rooms,  manure  pits,  etc.,  may,  before  entering 
the  street  sewer,  be  discharged  into  a  catch  basin  located  under- 
ground outside  of  the  stable.  The  catch  basin  ma}^  be  constructed 
of  brick  or  of  cast  iron,  and  should  be  water-tight,  with  a  tight  cover,- 
and  properly  vented.  The  outlet  from  the  catch  basin  may  be  con- 
nected to  the  stable  sewer  or  street  sewer. 


FACTORY    PLUMBING 

The  sanitary  arrangements  of  well-appointed  factories  of  the 
present  day  are  of  as  high  an  excellence  as  for  schools  and  other 
institutions.  There  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  be  of  a  high 
standard,  but  it  is  true  that,  until  within  a  comparatively  few  years, 
they  have  often  been  giA'^en  scant  attention. 

The  ventilation  of  the  toilet  room  should  be  on  the  same  scale 


242  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

and  as  thorough  as  that  of  other  pubhc  toilet  rooms.  In  Fig.  B  is 
shown  a  floor  plan  of  part  of  a  factory  toilet  room. 

As  will  be  seen,  it  is  thoroughly  lighted  from  outside  windows 
and  also  by  inside  windows,  the  latter  admitting  light  from  the  out- 
side to  the  wash  room.  The  floor  should  be  constructed  of  water- 
proofed concrete,  and  provided  with  a  floor  drain,  as  the  thorough 
flushing  out  of  such  rooms  is  very  essential. 

A  sill  cock,  conveniently  located,  will  be  found  convenient  in  sup- 
plying water  for  this  purpose. 

In  Fig.  D  is  shown  the  common  method  of  venting  such  a  line 
of  water  closets  and  the  connection  of  the  main  horizontal  vent  line 
into  the  main  vent  stack.  The  use  of  the  circuit-vent  system,  as 
shown  in  Plate  29,  is  advantageous  in  such  work,  and  results  in 
reducing  the  cost  of  installation. 

In  buildings  of  factory  construction,  horizontal  waste  and  soil 
lines  may  be  run  on  the  ceiling  of  the  floor  below,  thus  making  such 
lines,  with  their  cleanouts,  accessible  from  the  floor  below.  It  may 
be  stated  that,  in  using  the  circuit  and  loop  vents,  it  is  desirable  to 
run  the  horizontal  soil  line  as  close  to  the  bases  of  the  water  closets 
as  possible.  The  line  of  water  closets  shown  is  provided  with  local 
vents.  Ventilation  by  means  of  fresh  and  foul-air  flues  and  fans,  as 
described  in  Plate  37,  is  preferable  for  large  toilet  rooms  to  the 
system  shown  in  Fig.  D,  as  it  is  more  thorough,  purifying  the  air  of 
the  entire  room  more  effectually.  The  wash  sink  for  factory  use  is 
an  important  matter. 

In  Fig.  B  a  double  line  of  wash  sinks  is  shown,  and  in  Fig.  C 
an  end  view  of  the  same.  The  sinks  shown  are  of  enameled  cast 
iron,  cast  in  sections,  thus  allowing  any  length  of  sink  to  be  used. 
They  are  supported  on  cast-iron  standards,  and  made  in  a  variety 
of  forms.  The  waste  may  be  arranged  as  in  Fig.  C,  which  shows  a 
short  waste  connection  above  the  floor,  leading  into  a  trap  which 
serves  both  lines,  the  horizontal  waste  being  of  cast  or  wrought  iron 
and  hung  on  the  ceiling  below.  In  factory  and  school  plumbing  sys- 
tems it  is  w^ell  to  have  as  little  piping  exposed  as  possible,  owing  to 
the  rough  and  careless  usage  given  it. 

The  size  of  the  waste  from  the  factory  sink  should  not  be  less 
than  2  in.,  and  3  in.  for  sinks  of  great  length.  The  trap  should  be 
vented  with  2-in.  cast-  or  wrought-iron  pipe,  which  is  carried  verti- 
cally to  the  ceiling,  and  then  horizontally  into  the  nearest  vent  stack. 


Plate  XLI 


AUTOMATIC    FLUSHING    FOR    SCHOOLS, 
FACTORIES,    ETC. 


F>/a/-<z  4/. 
Au/-omah'c  f/ushlng  f<:>r 


<iyoizh. 


oo 


j4.  zz/-<=>22Z  aZ-jic 


\ 


y4  iz  '/<=J7za/jc^ 


f/g.  C. 


AUTOMATIC    FLUSHING    FOR    SCHOOLS, 
FACTORIES,    ETC 

It  is  often  desirable  to  provide  groups  of  such  fixtures  as  water 
closets  and  urinals  with  automatic  flushing,  such  provision  being 
specially  valuable  in  school  and  factory  use,  and  often  in  public  work, 
such  as  railway-station  toilet  rooms,  public  comfort  stations,  etc. 
In  the  use  of  any  toilet  room  for  the  accommodation  of  the  public, 
the  fixtures  are  bound  to  be  used  by  many  people  who  are  ignorant 
or  careless  in  the  matter  of  flushing  fixtures  after  having  used  them. 
In  the  matter  of  urinals,  especially,  the  flushing  of  them  is  often  left 
to  the  attention  of  an  attendant  who  may  be  careless  in  perform- 
ing this  duty.  In  school  houses  particularly,  small  children  using 
the  fixtures  cannot  always  be  expected  to  understand  the  necessity 
of  flushing  water  closets.  Owing  to  these  circumstances  and  many 
others,  the  periodic  and  automatic  flushing  of  fixtures  is  of  much 
advantage  in  maintaining  wholesome  toilet  rooms. 

In  Fig.  A,  Plate  41,  is  shown  a  sectional  view  of  a  form  of 
automatic  flush  tank,  the  action  of  which  is  as  follows: 

The  admission  of  water  to  the  automatic  tank  is  not  controlled 
by  ball  cock,  as  the  supply  must  be  constant.  The  interval  between 
flushes  depends  upon  the  amount  of  water  flowing  into  the  tank, 
which  is  regulated  by  the  valve  G.  The  principal  working  parts  of 
the  flushing  device  consist  of  a  circular  vessel  D,  which  is  supported 
by  several  wires  attached  to  the  outer  circular  compartment  B.  The 
vessel  D,  is  filled  with  water,  into  which  a  tube  C,  projects.  Out- 
side of  C  is  a  hollow  cylinder  H,  closed  at  its  upper  end,  and  sup- 
plied with  holes  at  the  bottom,  through  which  the  water  may  enter. 
As  the  water  rises  in  the  tank,  it  fills  the  space  between  the  tubs  C 
and  the  cylinder  H,  the  air  in  the  tube  and  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
being  confined  between  the  rising  level  of  the  water  and  the  water 
seal  of  D.  This  air  becomes  more  and  more  compressed  as  the  water 
rises,  until  the  pressure  exerted  is  sufficient  to  force  the  water  out 
of  D.  This  produces  a  vacuum  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  and  the 
compression  being  relieved,  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  surface  of 

245 


246  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

the  water  in  the  tank  will  force  it  into  the  tube  C,  and  into  the  flush 
pipe  A,  which  conveys  it  to  the  different  fixtures  to  be  flushed. 

This  siphonic  action  continues  until  the  water  in  the  tank  drops 
to  such  a  point  that  air  is  admitted  through  the  holes  M,  when  the 
action  stops,  the  tank  again  beginning  to  fill  for  the  next  flush. 

Fig.  B  shows  the  general  plan  of  connections  between  the  tank 
and  the  fixtures. 

The  principles  governing  the  construction,  locating,  etc.,  of  stor- 
age tanks  also  apply  to  automatic  flush  tanks,  and  are  to  be  found 
under  Plate  39.  Successive  flushes  should  not  be  more  than  seven 
minutes  apart.  A  great  objection  to  automatic  flushing  is  that  when- 
ever water  closets  or  urinals  are  used,  the  excreta  entering  them  must 
remain  in  the  fixture,  giving  off  impure  odors  into  the  toilet  room, 
until  the  next  flush  takes  place.  For  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  each  water  closet  and  each  urinal  of  an  automatically  flushed 
system  with  strong-acting  local  vents. 

The  automatic  flush  tank  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  discharge 
into  each  fixture  at  least  four  gallons  of  water  at  each  flush.  The 
copper  lining  for  the  automatic  flush  tank,  and  for  all  other  flush 
tanks,  should  not  be  less  than  10  ounces.  This  weight  is  ordinarily 
used  for  tank  linings,  but  a  heavier  grade  of  metal  is  preferable. 

Another  disadvantage  in  the  use  of  the  automatic  flush  tank  is 
the  large  amount  of  water  used,  which  is  a  matter  of  importance  if 
a  metered  public  supply  is  to  be  used,  owing  to  cost  of  water.  In 
many  instances  however,  institutions,  factories,  and  hotels  have  a 
large  private  supply,  the  use  of  which  is  not  restricted.  When  used 
in  connection  with  many  systems,  the  periodic  flushing  must  go  on 
without  interruption,  but  in  the  case  of  school  buildings  the  supply 
to  the  tank  may  be  shut  off  when  school  is  not  in  session.  In  con- 
nection with  plumbing  systems  automatically  flushed,  water  closets 
and  urinals  in  private  toilet  rooms  and  bath  rooms  may  not  be  con- 
nected to  the  automatic  flush  if  it  is  desirable  to  keep  down  the  cost 
of  water  used. 

Fig.  C,  Plate  41,  shows  a  form  of  automatically  flushed  urinal, 
of  excellent  design. 

It  is  made  of  porcelain,  or  porcelain-lined  material,  is  free  from 
exposed  metal  parts  which  may  corrode,  and  is  well  adapted  to  public 
toilet  rooms. 

A  cross  section  of  a  urinal  of  this  type  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  E, 


AUTOMATIC    FLUSHING  247 

Plate  43,  from  which  it  will  be  observed  that  a  large  body  of  water 
always  stands  in  the  fixture,  the  tank  after  completing  its  flush 
always  providing  this  body  of  water,  which  stands  in  the  urinal  until 
the  succeeding  flush.  A  double  trap  is  provided  on  the  outlet  of  this 
urinal,  one  trap  being  above  the  other.  When  the  tank  flushes,  the 
air  in  the  upper  trap  becomes  rarefied — that  is,  partially  exhausted — 
sufficiently  to  set  in  action  a  strong  siphon  which  draws  the  entire 
contents  of  the  urinal  out  of  the  fixture  and  into  the  waste.  When 
the  water  in  the  tank  drops  to  a  certain  level,  air  is  admitted  to  the 
pipe  running  from  the  tank  to  the  crown  of  the  upper  trap,  the 
admission  of  this  air  to  the  trap  breaking  the  siphon. 

When  the  siphon  breaks,  the  water  at  that  time  in  the  urinal, 
remains  there  until  the  next  flush.  No  water  is  wasted  in  starting 
this  siphon,  every  drop  of  water  passing  out  of  the  tank  being  used 
in  cleansing  the  fixture.  A  horizontal  perforated  pipe  at  the  back 
of  the  urinal,  and  connected  with  the  vertical  flush  pipe  from  the 
tank,  thoroughly  flushes  and  cleanses  the  back  of  the  urinal.  This 
same  action  is  applied  in  the  flushing  of  water-closet  ranges.  Both 
range  and  urinal  can  be  installed  of  an}^  number  of  compartments 
and  supplied  with  a  tank  of  size  to  correspond. 

Slop  sinks,  in  addition  to  water  closets  and  urinals,  may  be 
automatically  flushed. 

There  is  a  sink  for  factory  use,  made  of  slate,  or  wood  lined 
with  sheet  copper,  and  of  any  desired  length,  which  is  comparatively 
self-cleansing. 

The  sink  is  made  with  an  outer  and  inner  compartment,  the 
latter  running  through  the  center  of  the  sink,  with  space  for  wash- 
ing on  either  side.  There  is  also  a  narrow  space  at  the  end  of  the 
inner  compartment,  between  it  and  the  outer  compartment,  in  which 
a  standing  overflow  is  located,  connected  into  the  waste.  A  line  of 
supply  pipe  runs  above  and  over  the  center  of  the  sink,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  sprays  which  throw  the  water  down  into  the  center 
compartment,  from  which  it  overflows  into  the  main  body  of  the 
sink.  Thus  the  first  washing  may  be  done  in  the  outer  compart- 
ment, with  clean  water  always  in  the  inner  compartment  for  use  in 
face  washing. 

In  factories  employing  a  high  grade  of  help,  the  line  or  battery 
of  lavatories  shown  in  Fig.  A  of  Plate  37,  and  Fig.  E  of  Plate  38 
is  much  in  use. 


Plate  XLII 

THE    USE    OF    FLUSHING    VALVES 


PJote  4a. 

Use,     o/" 

r/u  shing    l/a/i/<z  3 


^^^^m/////////////M 


THE    USE    OF    FLUSHING    VALVES 

Flush  valves  are  used  in  place  of  tanks  in  the  flushing  of 
w^ater  closets,  urinals,  and  slop  sinks.  They  may  be  placed  directly 
back  of  and  above  the  fixtures  which  they  serve,  or  may  be  con- 
cealed behind  partitions,  as  shown  in  Figs.  C  and  D  of  Plate  42. 

Flush  valves  may  be  operated  either  under  direct  pressure,  as 
in  Fig.  B,  or  under  tank  pressure,  as  in  Fig.  A.  The  operation  of 
flush  valves  under  tank  pressure  is  generally  the  more  satisfactory 
method,  as  there  is  always  a  storage  of  water  in  the  event  of  an 
interruption  of  the  public  supply,  and  the  pressure  is  more  positive 
and  reliable.  The  tank  pressure  is  always  uniform,  while  direct 
pressure  is  extremely  variable,  which  is  an  undesirable  feature  in 
not  only  this  work,  but  in  all  branches  of  supply  work.  When  a 
storage  tank  is  used,  the  height  of  the  tank  above  the  highest  flush 
valve  should  not  be  less  than  10  ft.  if  good  service  is  to  be  expected. 

Flush  valves  may  be  obtained  that  are  to  be  connected  with  the 
supply  pipe  coming  directly  through  the  wall  back  of  the  valve,  or 
for  either  right-  or  left-hand  side  connection. 

The  operation  of  most  flush  valves  is  similar  in  its  general 
features.  This  action  is  as  follows:  When  the  handle  is  released 
after  flushing,  the  valve  is  closed  automatically  by  a  jet  of  water 
discharged  from  the  pressure  side  of  the  valve  into  and  through  a 
by-pass  to  the  valve  chamber  beyond  the  piston  head,  which  it 
gradually  forces  onto  its  seat.  This  by-pass  is  one  of  the  sources 
of  trouble,  as  any  sand  or  other  solid  substance  will  clog  up  the 
passage  and  stop  the  passage  of  the  water  jet  into  the  valve  cham- 
ber. Some  valves  are  provided  with  a  device  for  holding  back  any 
such  harmful  solids. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  definitely  proper  sizes  of  pipes  and  connec- 
tions for  flush  valves,  as  this  information,  given  by  manufacturers 
of  dilTerent  forms  of  flush  valves,  varies  greatly,  depending  upon  the 
difl^erent  forms  and  construction  of  valves  and  upon  the  pressures 
that  they  are  designed  to  work  under.  Some  manufacturers  adver- 
tise flush  valves  which  work  under  pressures  between   10  and  200 

251 


252  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

pounds,  and  are  not  affected  in  their  operation  by  a  variation  between 
these  two  points. 

Other  makes  of  flush  valves,  however,  are  made  in  different 
styles,  for  different  pressures.  Owing  to  inability  to  give  absolutely 
definite  data  which  will  cover  all  makes  of  flush  valves,  the  follow- 
ing information  is  given  in  general,  and  may  or  may  not  be  correct 
in  the  case  of  certain  makes.  Generally  a  pressure  of  8  to  lo  pounds 
is  required  for  the  operation  of  flush  valves  under  direct  pressure, 
and  supply  pipes  serving  buildings  in  which  flush  valves  are  used 
should  be  of  such  sizes  and  so  installed  that  the  drawing  of  water  at 
fixtures  will  not  reduce  the  pressure  at  any  flush  valve  below  the 
amount  named. 

In  general,  the  size  of  service  pipe  for  flush  valves  is  from  ij^ 
to  i}4  in.,  when  operated  by  direct  pressure,  for  valves  up  to  four 
in  number,  and  these  sizes  should  be  increased  for  larger  numbers. 

When  working  under  tank  pressure,  a  main  line  of  supply  pipe 
is  run  down  to  the  several  floors,  branches  being  taken  to  the  dif- 
ferent fixtures  to  be  supplied. 

A  i^-in.  main  is  ample  for  from  one  to  four  fixtures.  If  there 
is  more  than  this  number  of  fixtures,  it  is  well  in  ordinary  build- 
ings to  carry  a  2-in.  supply  down  from  the  tank  lo  or  15  ft.,  reduc- 
ing to  i^  in.  for  the  rest  of  the  distance,  and  if  the  building  is  ten 
stories  or  more  in  height,  the  lower  floors  may  be  reduced  to  ij4 
and  I   in. 

Fkish  valves  for  urinal  use  are  often  smaller  in  size  than  those 
designed  for  water-closet  use,  and  have  smaller  supply  connections. 
For  low  pressures  a  i^-in.  connection  to  the  flush  valve  is  used,  and 
for  ordinary  pressures  i^  in.  is  the  general  size. 

The  storage  tank  for  use  in  connection  with  flush  valves  should 
have  a  capacity,  whenever  possible,  of  about  6  gallons  per  fixture. 
This  capacity  is  the  requirement  when  a  small  number  of  flush  valves 
are  installed.  On  large  systems,  where  a  large  number  of  valves  are 
used,  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide  such  liberal  storage,  as  the  amount 
named  per  fixture  allows  for  two  successive  flushes,  and  in  large 
work  it  is  almost  impossible  that  all,  or  anywhere  near  all,  of  the 
fixtures  served  will  be  flushed  at  the  same  time.  Therefore  the  size 
of  the  tank  may  be  reduced  from  the  capacity  named,  as  may  be  cor- 
rect for  each  separate  system.  A  liberal  capacity  of  storage  is  always 
desirable,  however. 


Plate  XLIII 

URINALS    FOR    PUBLIC    TOILET    ROOIViS 


Ur/na/s   f^r 
Rub//c    7o//e/-   /?oo/r7vy 


v^ 


J§>2~02ZCj5 


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(i>2zd.    Vlov  ^ 


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TzecfJTzg 


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q7-Jzz<52s 


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tr 


O- 


^ 


± 


r 


■^  ^ 


t 


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L 


C'='jzcjre/e 


^TI 


HT^ 


isr 


Hea/ed 


URINALS    FOR    PUBLIC    TOILET    ROOMS 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  the  waste  that  enters  the  urinal,  it  is 
the  most  difficult  of  all  toilet-room  fixtures  to  keep  in  a  clean  and 
sanitary  condition. 

The  foul  air  noticed  in  many  public  toilet  rooms  that  are  not 
properly  provided  for  and  attended  to,  is  due  in  a  large  measure  to 
foul  urinals,  this  cause  no  doubt,  being  greater  than  the  use  of 
water  closets.  The  local  vent  may  be  very  effectively  applied  to  the 
urinal,  and  results  in  lessening  the  nuisance  mentioned  very  percep- 
tibly. In  Fig.  A,  Plate  43,  is  shown  a  method  of  applying  the  local 
vent  to  the  single  urinal  or  to  groups  of  them  when  of  the  lip  pattern. 
The  piping  for  the  urinal  is  concealed  behind  the  back  urinal  slab 
or  behind  a  partition.  From  the  house  side  of  the  urinal  trap  the 
local  vent  connection  is  made,  it  being  connected  directly  into  a  main 
horizontal  local  vent  line,  which  should  be  carried  into  a  heated  flue 
under  the  same  conditions  as  prescribed  for  the  local  vent  serving  a 
line  of  water  closets.  The  main  should  be  proportioned  in  size  so 
that  at  any  point  its  area  shall  be  equal  to  the  combined  areas  of 
the  branch  vents  that  have  been  connected  into  it.  A  strong  draft 
in  the  heated  flue  will  result  not  only  in  drawing  the  foul  odors  out 
of  the  connections,  but  from  the  fixture  itself,  and  from  the  room. 
It  is  very  necessary  that  a  heated  flue  should  be  used,  and  for  the 
ventilation  of  large  toilet  rooms  a  special  flue  should  be  used  and 
kept  heated  the  year  round.  The  connection  of  the  local  vent  does 
not  interfere  with  the  connection  of  the  trap  vent,  which  is,  of  course, 
taken  ofl:  the  other  side  of  the  trap,  and  may  be  connected  into  a 
main  vent  line  above  the  floor,  the  trap  entering  a  main  line  of  waste 
either  above  or  below  the  floor.  In  Fig.  D  is  shown  a  system  of 
local  venting  applied  to  another  form  of  urinal.  These  vents  should 
also  enter  a  heated  flue.  In  order  to  better  show  the  remaining  con- 
nections, the  trap  vents  have  been  omitted  in  Fig.  D.  The  local  vent- 
ing of  urinal  traps  has  the  disadvantage  of  producing  on  the  seals 
a  higher  rate  of  evaporation,  but  when  used  in  public  toilet  rooms 
the  urinals  are  more  or  less  constantly  in  use,  and  the  loss  of  seal 

255 


256  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

thereby  continually  renewed.  In  the  case  of  a  urinal  seldom  used, 
it  would  be  unwise  for  this  reason,  to  apply  the  local  vent. 

As  to  the  form  in  which  the  urinal  is  made  there  is  a  great 
variety  of  choice. 

One  of  the  most  common  forms  is  the  lip  urinal,  shown  in 
Fig.  A,  which  is  supported  on  a  slate  or  marble  back  by  means  of 
bolts,  and  receives  its  flush  through  a  urinal  cock  by  direct  pressure 
or  from  a  tank  located  above  it,  which  may  or  may  not  be  of  auto- 
matic action.  In  Plate  44  is  shown  a  line  of  these  fixtures,  from 
which  it  will  be  seen  that  such  a  line  may  be  provided  with  con- 
tinuous vents  to  advantage. 

The  various  forms  of  slate  urinals  are  also  very  common.  Figs. 
B  and  C  show  two  of  these  forms,  the  latter  showing  a  double  line 
with  single  dividing  partition.  In  the  urinal  of  Fig.  B,  the  waste, 
striking  the  two  drip  slabs,  is  washed  down  into  a  gutter,  formed 
in  the  concrete  floor,  by  means  of  water  discharged  from  two  per- 
porated  flush  pipes  running  lengthwise.  This  flush  keeps  the  slabs 
wet  at  all  times,  all  liquids  being  washed  away  as  they  fall  upon  the 
slab.  More  commonly  in  use  than  this  type  of  urinal,  however,  is 
that  shown  in  Fig.  C,  which  consists  of  a  vertical  drip  slab  with 
perforated  flush  pipe,  the  waste  liquids  being  washed  into  the  cement 
gutter  or  into  a  cast-iron  gutter.  The  ends  of  such  gutters  should 
be  provided  with  metal  connections  and  cast-  or  wrought-iron  trap 
of  not  less  than  2  in.  diameter  connected  into  the  waste.  All  urinals 
should  be  provided  with  slate  or  marble  floor  slabs,  and  any  wall 
surface  that  is  exposed  and  within  5  ft.  of  a  urinal  should  be  con- 
structed of  Portland  cement  or  other  impervious  material.  The 
urinal  gutter  should  also  be  constructed  of  like  material. 

In  connection  with  the  cast-iron  urinal  gutter  mentioned  above, 
it  should  be  added  that  to  be  strictly  sanitary  the  gutter  should  be 
lined  with  enamel,  in  order  to  prevent  any  corrosion  due  to  the 
presence  of  the  urine  in  the  waste.  All  lip  urinals  should  be  of  the 
flushing-rim  pattern,  in  order  that  all  surfaces  of  the  urinal  may  be 
as  thoroughly  scoured  and  cleansed  by  the  flush  as  possible.  In 
Fig.  D  is  shown  a  set  of  three  porcelain  urinals,  flushed  by  means 
of  an  automatic  flush  tank. 

The  porcelain  urinal  is  a  massive  fixture  and  especially  adapted 
to  the  service  of  public  toilet  rooms  and  comfort  stations,  which  de- 
mand the  most  perfect  sanitary  conditions  possible,  usually  without 


URINALS    FOR    PUBLIC    TOILET    ROOMS  257 

question  of  expense.  The  flush  pipe  is  concealed  in  the  fixture  itself, 
the  flush  entering  each  urinal  through  a  spreader,  which  throws  it 
upon  every  part  of  the  exposed  surfaces,  these  surfaces  being  so 
formed  as  to  allow  the  flush  to  cleanse  them  to  the  best  advantage. 
An  excellent  feature  of  this  form  of  urinal  is  that  no  metal  parts  or 
trimmings  are  exposed,  and  thus  there  is  nothing  which  may  corrode 
by  contact  with  the  urine.  The  addition  of  the  local  vent  completes 
in  this  fixture  the  highest  sanitary  excellence  to  be  found  in  urinal 
construction.  The  porcelain  trough  urinal  shown  in  elevation  in 
Fig.  C,  Plate  41,  and  in  section  in  Fig.  E,  Plate  43,  has  been  fully 
described  under  the  former  plate,  and  is  to  be  considered  an  excellent 
fixture  for  public  toilet-room  work. 

The  pedestal  urinal  of  porcelain,  is  one  of  the  latest  types  of 
urinal  to  appear  on  the  market,  and  is  also  of  much  excellence.  An- 
other recent  urinal  of  high-grade  construction  is  the  siphon-jet  urinal, 
supplied  from  a  tank.  In  this  fixture,  a  heavy  body  of  water  is  at 
all  times  maintained.  When  the  tank  is  operated,  the  flush  enters 
through  the  flushing  rim  and  through  a  jet,  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  siphon- jet  water  closet.  This  action  results  in  siphoning  the 
entire  body  of  water  out  of  the  fixture,  which  is  of  the  lip  pattern. 

Flushing  valves  may  be  applied  to  the  urinal  to  advantage,  as 
shown  in  Plate  42.  These  valves  may  be  concealed,  as  in  Fig.  C, 
or  exposed,  as  in  Figs.  A  and  B. 

Automatic  flushing  of  urinals,  as  illustrated  and  considered  in 
Plate  41,  is  along  the  line  of  good  practice.  When  the  flushing  of 
this  fixture  is  left  to  the  user  of  it,  this  important  matter  is  often 
neglected,  the  result  being  a  foul-smelling  toilet  room.  Automatic 
flushing  does  away  with  much  of  the  nuisance  arising  from  this 
cause. 

In  Plate  44  a  line  of  urinals  is  shown  in  connection  with  the 
Durham  system.  The  drainage  of  this  system  is  entirely  of  wrought- 
iron  or  steel  pipe,  upon  which  the  action  of  the  acids  in  the  urine 
passing  from  the  urinals  is  especially  harmful.  This  action  is  far 
less  serious  on  cast-iron  pipe,  and  presents  additional  argument  in 
favor  of  the  use  of  the  latter  material  for  drainage  purposes. 

As  elsewhere  intimated,  the  public  toilet  room  should  be  pro- 
vided with  the  advantage  of  good  ventilation  and  with  an  abundant 
supply  of  light.  Without  these  advantages  the  urinal  becomes  a  foul 
and  unsanitary  fixture. 


Plate  XLIV 

THE    DURHAM     SYSTEM— THE    DESTRUC- 
TION   OF    PIPES    BY    ELECTROLYSIS 


R/o/-e  ^4. 


Cos/-  Ir<=>n 
Dro/nogc 


THE    DURHAM    SYSTEM 

There  is  no  difference  in  the  principles  of  construction  between 
the  Durham  system  and  the  plumbing  system  as  ordinarily  con- 
structed. The  only  difference  in  the  Durham  system  is  that  it  is 
constructed  entirely  of  wrought-iron  threaded  pipe  and  cast-iron 
fittings. 

On  the  Durham  system  all  joints  are  made  with  screw  threads, 
no  caulked  lead  joints  being  used.  The  Durham  system  is  shown  in 
Plate  44,  with  a  detail  in  section,  of  the  style  of  cast-iron  fitting  used 
on  Durham.  Fittings  of  other  than  recessed  construction  should  not 
be  used  on  any  part  of  the  drainage  system.  On  vent  work  in  con- 
nection with  the  Durham  drainage  system,  galvanized,  cast,  or  mal- 
leable steam  and  water  fittings  of  ordinary  make  may  be  used.  The 
purpose  in  using  recessed  fittings  is  that  the  alignment  of  the  inside 
surface  of  drainage  pipe  and  fittings  may  be  as  even  as  possible,  with 
no  ends  of  pipes  that  screw  into  fittings  presenting  shoulders  against 
which  solid  matter  flowing  in  the  waste  may  find  lodgment. 

The  use  of  cast-iron  pipe  and  fittings  is  free  from  this  trouble, 
for  the  hubs  are  sufficiently  recessed  to  allow  an  even  inside  align- 
ment. In  the  use  of  common  steam  and  water  fittings  on  cast-iron 
drainage  work,  there  being  no  recesses  in  such  fittings,  the  ends  of 
all  pipes  entering  fittings  present  shoulders  against  which  lint  and 
other  materials  in  the  waste  may  collect.  It  may  be  stated,  however, 
that  this  trouble  is  experienced  in  a  greater  degree  in  connection 
with  Durham  work  than  in  cast-iron  soil  piping.  For  this  reason, 
special  care  should  be  taken  in  cutting  wrought-iron  pipe  for  drainage 
use,  and  all  burs  on  the  ends  of  such  pipes  should  be  reamed  out. 
The  weights  of  wrought-iron  pipe  for  drainage  purposes  should  not 
be  less  than  the  following: 

Diameter  of  Pipe  Weight  per  Foot         Diameter  of  Pipe  Weight  per  Foot 

ii^in 2.68  lbs.  5  in 14.5     lbs. 


2 

2>4 

3 

3/2 

4 

4>^  " 12.34 


3.61  "  6  " 18.76 

574  "  7  " 23.27 

7.54  "  8  " 28.18 

9  "  9  " 33-7 

10.66  "  10  " 40.06 


261 


262  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

All  fittings  used  on  Durham  work  and  on  all  vent  work  should 
be  galvanized.  Short  nipples,  in  which  the  unthreaded  part  is  less 
than  I  J/  in.  long,  should  be  made  of  weight  and  thickness  known 
as  "'  extra  heavy  "  or  "  extra  strong."  This  provision  is  to  guard 
against  crushing  and  splitting,  which  is  liable  to  happen  in  the  use 
of  nipples  made  of  ordinary  pipe. 

Joints  on  the  Durham  system  should  be  made  up  with  red  or 
white  lead,  applied  to  the  male  part  of  the  thread.  When  thus  applied 
there  is  less  opportunity  for  the  lead  to  squeeze  through  into  the 
interior  of  the  pipe  and  form  an  obstruction. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  all  such  obstructions  are  removed  when 
the  joint  is  made.  When  wrought-iron  or  brass  pipe  is  connected 
into  cast-iron  pipe,  the-  connection  may  be  made  by  a  caulked  lead 
joint  or  by  a  screw  joint. 

Connectigns  between  lead  and  wrought-iron  pipes  may  be  made 
by  means  of  a  brass  ferrule  caulked  or  screwed  into  the  cast  iron, 
the  lead  connection  to  the  ferrule  being  made  by  means  of  a  wiped 
joint. 

An  advantage  claimed  for  the  Durham  system  by  its  friends,  is 
that  a  screw  joint,  being  as  strong  as  the  pipe  is,  there  are  no  weak 
points  in  a  line  of  such  pipe,  whereas  it  would  be  folly  to  claim  any 
such  thing  as  this  regarding  a  line  of  cast-iron  pipe  with  its  caulked 
joints.  This  argument  is  followed  by  the  claim  that  the  above  being 
true  as  regards  a  vertical  line  of  wrought-iron  pipe,  so  long  as  it 
rests  at  its  base  on  a  firm  foundation,  there  is  no  necessity  for  side 
supports,  and  that  it  may  be  carried  thus,  through  the  height  of  the 
tallest  buildings.  This  would  not  seem  plausible,  for  the  reason  that 
any  line  of  drainage  pipe,  whether  vertical  or  horizontal,  of  cast  or 
wrought  iron,  should  be  given  lateral  support  in  order  that  it  may 
be  rigid  and  not  subject  to  any  lateral  movement.  Even  though  the 
screw  joint  is  a  strong  one,  lateral  motion  in  a  long  line  of  pipe  will 
often  result  in  snapping  the  pipe  at  one  of  the  screw  joints  or  in 
breaking  a  fitting.  Furthermore,  if  a  vertical  line  of  cast-iron  drain- 
age pipe  be  given  the  support  that  it  should  receive,  it  will  not  sag 
or  settle  so  that  the  caulked  joints  will  be  forced  out  of  the  hubs, 
a  claim  that  is  made  against  the  use  of  cast-iron  pipe.  It  is  true  that 
in  the  construction  of  the  plumbing  system  the  proper  supporting  of 
heavy  piping  is  not  given  the  attention  that  it  should  receive,  damage 
to  caulked  joints  often  resulting  thereby.    It  is  also  true  that  lines  of 


THE    DURHAM    SYSTEM  263 

cast-iron  pipe  properly  provided  for,  suffer  no  more  from  broken  joints 
than  wrought-iron  lines,  and  are  free  from  certain  serious  evils  which 
wrought  iron  is  subject  to.  The  Durham  system,  which  has  received 
its  name  from  the  inventor  of  certain  patents  on  the  application  of 
wrought-iron  pipes  to  drainage  systems,  is  now  extensively  used  in 
high  city  buildings,  mainly  because  of  the  advantages  thus  claimed 
for  the  system,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  such  extensive  use  would 
have  resulted  if  the  cast-iron  system  had  been  properly  handled.  It 
has  often  been  placed  in  high  buildings  with  not  much  more  pro- 
vision being  made  for  supporting  its  great  weight  than  is  made  in 
the  system  of  a  private  residence,  and  it  is  mainly  due  to  this  cause 
that  cast  iron  has  been  somewhat  superseded  in  very  large  work. 
There  are  many  uses  to  which  iron  piping  is  put,  in  which  the  use 
of  wrought  iron  for  drainage  purposes  is  preferable.  Greenhouse 
work  is  an  important  instance.  In  this  work,  where  there  is  much 
expansion  and  contraction  due  to  changes  in  temperature,  the  caulked 
joint  will  not  stand  nearly  so  well  as  the  screw  joint.  This  is  also 
many  times  true  in  the  case  of  factory  work,  where  constant  and 
severe  vibration  tends  to  start  the  caulked  joints  of  cast-iron  piping. 

A  very  strong  argument  against  the  use  of  the  Durham  system 
is  the  fact  that  wrought-iron  pipe  has  a  much  shorter  term  of  life 
than  cast-iron  pipe,  particularly  when  buried  underground.  This  fact 
is  testified  to  very  strongly  by  the  demand  made  by  all  plumbing 
ordinances  dealing  with  the  subject  of  the  Durham  system,  that  when- 
ever pipes  connected  with  the  system  are  to  be  run  underground, 
such  pipes  shall  be  of  cast  iron.  This  feature  appears  in  the  illus- 
tration in  Plate  44.  Regarding  the  life  of  wrought-iron  pipe,  it  may 
be  stated  that  under  certain  unfavorable  conditions,  plain  wrought- 
iron  piping  that  has  been  installed  not  longer  than  eight  to  ten  years 
has  had  to  be  renewed,  owing  to  its  deterioration. 

Steel  pipe  is  much  used  in  place  of  wrought  iron,  many  times 
indeed,  under  the  impression  that  it  is  wrought  iron. 

This  material  is  far  shorter  lived  than  even  wrought  iron,  and 
is  entirely  unsuited  to  the  plumbing  system,  which  should  be  expected 
to  render  service  almost  as  long  as  the  house  in  which  it  is  placed. 

The  only  way  in  which  either  wrought-iron  or  steel  pipe  can  be 
used  with  any  degree  of  safety  is  by  coating  it  with  a  non-corrosive 
substance  such  as  galvanizing,  which  is  demanded  by  all  ordinances 
on  plumbing.     Even  when  so  protected,  there  will  be  thin  places  in 


264  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

the  coating,  and  whenever  the  pipe  is  cut,  the  coating  at  the  ends 
of  the  pipe  is  more  or  less  damaged,  so  that  the  steel  or  wrought 
iron  is  left  bare.  At  such  points  corrosion  gets  in  its  work.  A  scale 
is  formed  by  this  galvanic  action,  over  the  exposed  surface,  which  in 
time  exposes  a  fresh  surface  to  be  acted  upon,  the  scale  forming 
again,  and  again  falling  ofT.  Thus  the  action  continues  until  a  hole 
has  been  eaten  entirely  through  the  pipe.  The  action  of  gases  and 
acids  in  the  sewage,  and  in  the  vapors  and  steam  that  rise  from  the 
sewage,  tends  to  increase  this  corrosive  action  in  a  marked  degree. 
Cast  iron,  however,  is  much  more  free  from  such  corrosion,  for  it 
simply  rusts  over  on  any  exposed  surface,  but  does  not  scale,  the  rust 
actually  forming  a  sort  of  protection  for  the  piping. 

An  important  agent  in  the  corrosion  of  wrought  iron  and  steel 
is  the  condensation  of  vapors  on  the  sides  of  the  pipe  in  the  form  of 
drops  of  water,  which  quickly  oxidize  any  exposed  surface  which 
they  come  in  contact  w4th. 

Mild  steel  is  especially  objectionable,  as  it  is  so  filled  with  im- 
purities that  it  rapidly  decays  wherever  they  exist. 

The  vent  system  is  open  to  the  injurious  effects  of  corrosion  to  an 
even  greater  extent  than  the  drainage  system,  for  the  latter  is  often 
covered  with  a  slime  which  acts  as  a  protection  against  such  action. 

While  the  screw  joint  is  the  strong  arguing  point  in  favor  of  the 
Durham  system,  it  is  right  at  this  point  that  the  most  serious  trouble 
may  be  expected,  both  on  the  drainage  and  on  the  vent  lines.  Wher- 
ever a  thread  is  cut,  the  material  of  the  pipe  is  entirely  exposed,  and 
whenever  threads  project  out  from  the  joint,  which  often  happens, 
there  is  not  only  abundant  opportunity  for  corrosive  action  to  take 
place,  but  there  is  a  large  surface  to  act  upon,  because  of  its  being 
threaded,  and  owing  to  the  depth  of  the  thread  there  is  less  thick- 
ness of  metal  to  be  eaten  through,  before  the  pipe  is  punctured.  In 
the  case  of  mild  steel,  especially,  it  takes  only  a  few  years  to  accom- 
plish such  a  result  under  the  above  conditions. 

It  is  a  very  easy  matter  for  most  users  to  be  imposed  upon  in 
deciding  from  the  appearance  of  pipe,  whether  it  is  wrought  iron  or 
steel.     A  very  large  part  of  the  pipe  now  turned  out  is  of  steel. 

The  following  shows  some  of  the  differences  between  iron  and 
steel.  Iron  pipe  looks  rough  and  has  a  heavy  scale,  while  the  scale 
on  steel  pipe  is  much  lighter  and  in  the  form  of  small  bubbles,  with 
a  smooth  and  rather  white  surface  beneath. 


DESTRUCTION    OF    PIPES    BY    ELECTROLYSIS       265 

Steel  pipe,  when  spread  out,  seldom  breaks,  while  iron  pipe  breaks 
easily.  A  break  in  the  former  shows  a  very  fine  grain,  while  that 
of  the  latter  is  much  coarser. 

Steel  pipe  is  not  hard  and  its  threads  tear  rather  than  break. 
Dies  that  are  used  on  steel  pipe  may  also  be  used  on  wrought-iron 
pipe,  but  blunt  dies  that  work  satisfactorily  on  wrought-iron  pipe  will 
tear  the  softer  threads  of  steel  pipe. 

A  few  remarks  concerning  the  length  of  life  of  wrought-  and 
cast-iron  pipes  under  actual  working  conditions,  and  the  conditions 
which  act  to  protect  or  destroy  them,  may  be  of  interest.  A  case 
is  on  record  of  the  complete  decay  of  an  entire  underground  wrought- 
iron  gas-supply  system  in  eleven  years,  the  cause  being  in  this  case 
traced  entirel}^  to  external  conditions  and  not  to  the  gas  which  the 
pipes  were  carrying.  In  the  same  town  experience  shows  that 
wrought-iron  water-service  pipes  have  a  life  generally  of  about  seven 
years.  Cast-iron  pipes  have  been  known  to  fail  through  softening 
of  the  metal  after  a  period  of  use  underground  of  from  thirty-five  to 
fifty  years.  This  action,  however,  is  very  rare,  and  the  failure  of 
cast-iron  pipes,  when  laid  underground,  may  generally  be  traced 
to  defects  in  manufacture. 

A  few  years  ago  in  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  the  cast-iron  water 
mains  were  uncovered  in  over  three  hundred  places,  and  the  pipes, 
which  had  been  laid  nearly  thirty  years  previous,  were  found  to  be 
in  almost  perfect  condition. 

It  was  found  that  the  coating  of  asphalt  had  almost  entirely  dis- 
appeared, that  in  sandy  soil  the  bare  pipe  had  not  rusted,  and  that 
in  other  moist  soil  it  had  rusted  somewhat  but  was  almost  uninjured. 
In  conclusion,  it  would  seem  advisable  to  use  cast-iron  pipe  for  drain- 
age purposes  wherever  possible,  and  that  when  impossible  or  im- 
practicable, nothing  but  wrought-iron  pipe  heavily  galvanized  should 
be  used.    Steel  pipe  should  never  be  used. 


DESTRUCTION    OF    PIPES    BY    ELECTROLYSIS 

In  recent  years  great  damage  has  been  done  to  all  kinds  of 
underground  piping  by  the  action  of  electric  currents,  chiefly  from 
electric  railway  systems.  This  damaging  action  affects  water  mains 
and  service  pipes,  gas  mains  and  service  pipes,  the  lead  sheathing  of 


266  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

underground  telephone  and  telegraph  lines,  and  in  fact  any  line 
of  underground  piping,  regardless  of  the  nature  of  the  metal  of  which 
it  is  made.  In  the  action  of  the  ordinary  galvanic  battery,  such  as 
is  used  for  house  bells,  two  metallic  plates  are  used,  one  of  these  gen- 
erally being  zinc,  and  the  other  some  metal  which  will  not  oxidize 
so  readily  as  zinc. 

^^'hen  two  such  plates  are  immersed  in  a  saline  solution,  and  a 
circuit  completed  by  connecting  a  wire  from  one  plate  to  the  other, 
it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  more  easily  oxidized  plate  will  be 
acted  upon  chemically  and  decomposed.  It  is  for  the  reason  that 
this  chemical  action  in  time  destroys  the  zinc  plate  that  battery  zincs 
must  be  replaced  in  batteries  at  longer  or  shorter  intervals.  This 
destruction  of  a  metal  by  means  of  the  passage  of  an  electric  current, 
is  known  as  electrolysis,  and  is  an  action  which  is  constantly  going 
on  underground,  in  the  vicinity  of  trolley  tracks. 

It  is  the  practice  in  the  operation  of  most  electric-railway  systems 
to  carry  the  electric  current  to  the  end  of  the  line  through  large 
wires,  and  to  carry  it  back  to  the  dynamos  through  the  rails.  As 
the  rails  are  not  separated  or  insulated  from  the  surrounding  earth 
in  any  way,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  part  of  the  current  from 
escaping  from  the  rail  and  passing  into  and  through  another  near-by 
conductor.  An  electric  current  will  always  take  the  path  that  is 
easiest  for  it;  that  is,  the  path  that  has  the  least  resistance.  When- 
ever an  electric  current  passes  a  point  where  it  may  take  either  of 
two  or  more  paths,  it  will  always  divide,  a  part  of  it  passing  through 
each  path  that  is  open  to  it,  and  the  path  that  presents  the  least  amount 
of  resistance  to  its  passage  will  receive  the  largest  part  of  the  current. 
If  the  rails  of  the  trolley  system  were  welded  together  and  therefore 
one  continuous  conductor,  the  action  of  electrolysis  would  be  much 
less  prevalent.  As  it  is,  however,  the  rails  must  be  bonded,  and  at 
these  joints  the  greatest  resistance  is  to  be  met.  Even  though  two 
rails  might  have  their  ends  pressed  together  as  closely  as  possible, 
there  would  still  be  at  this  joint  a  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the 
current  many  times  greater  than  the  resistance  it  would  meet  at  any 
intermediate  points  in  the  rail.  Even  when  the  rails  are  connected 
together  by  means  of  copper  wire  attached  to  the  rails  in  the  most 
approved  manner,  the  resistance  at  the  points  of  connection  will  be 
very  great.  It  is  at  such  points  of  resistance  as  these  that  the  electric 
current  will  jump  from  the  rail  to  some  other  conductor  which  offers 


DESTRUCTION    OF    PIPES    BY    ELECTROLYSIS       267 

less  resistance,  and  this  easier  path  for  the  current  is  often  suppHed 
by  a  near-by  Hne  of  underground  piping.  If  the  current  would  only 
continue  in  the  pipe,  and  not  leave  it,  the  pipe  would  not  be  damaged, 
any  more  than  the  rail  is  damaged  by  having  the  current  pass 
through  it. 

It  is  at  the  points  where  the  electric  current  jumps  from  the 
pipe  to  the  rail  again,  or  to  some  other  conductor,  that  the  damage 
comes,  and  also  at  fittings.  The  current  in  passing  from  the  pipe, 
through  the  joint  and  into  a  fitting,  does  specially  harmful  work.  It 
is  not  at  the  point  where  the  current  enters  the  pipe,  or  at  interme- 
diate points  along  the  pipe  that  the  pipe  is  destroyed,  but  at  those 
points  where  the  current  leaves  it.  This  point  is  not  generally 
understood. 

While  all  kinds  of  piping  are  subject  to  the  action  of  electrolysis, 
and  valves  as  well,  cast  iron  is  probably  less  harmfully  acted  upon 
than  the  other  metals,  although  there  are  many  instances  where  cast- 
iron  water  mains  have  been  very  seriously  damaged. 

There  are,  however,  several  instances  recorded,  where  serious 
damage  was  done  to  wrought-iron  and  lead  pipes,  while  the  cast-iron 
mains,  which  were  apparently  subject  to  the  same  conditions,  were 
practically  unharmed.  An  explanation  of  this  result  is  not  clear, 
although  it  has  been  suggested  that  in  the  casting  of  the  iron  pipes 
in  sand  moulds,  a  sort  of  silicious  coating  forms  over  the  pipe,  which 
acts  as  a  protection  to  it.  The  plumber  is  naturally  much  interested 
in  the  methods  that  may  be  employed  to  prevent  the  action  of  elec- 
trolysis. It  may  truthfully  be  said  that  there  is  really  no  practicable 
remedy  which  may  be  applied  at  an  expense  which  is  not  prohibitory. 
The  owners  of  electric-railway  systems  may  often  considerably  re- 
duce the  cause  of  damage,  but  that  is  not  the  part  of  the  question 
in  which  the  plumber  is  interested.  If  the  pipe  that  is  affected  can 
be  surrounded  by  some  suitable  non-conductor,  the  trouble  may  be 
remedied,  but  it  is  a  most  difficult  matter  to  provide  a  suitable  non- 
conductor. Many  materials  that  above  ground  might  be  used  as 
non-conductors,  cannot  be  used  underground  for  the  same  purpose, 
as  they  absorb  moisture  and  become  conductors.  The  use  of  as- 
phaltum,  resin,  wax,  and  other  substances  has  been  tried,  but  they 
are  not  generally  practicable,  as  a  coating  of  such  material  is  liable 
to  crack  and  fall  off,  and  in  addition  is  too  expensive  to  apply.  In 
some  cases,  about  the  only  thing  that  can  be  done  is  to  provide  for 


268  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

taking  out  sections  of  pipe,  that  are  being  constantly  destroyed,  in 
as  easy  a  manner  as  possible.  Sometimes  it  is  well  to  encase  the  pipe 
in  another  pipe,  in  which  case  the  current  will  often  act  on  the  outer 
pipe  only. 

The  action  of  electrolysis  has  caused  the  plumber  an  endless 
amount  of  annoyance  in  a  great  many  instances,  as  one  pipe  after 
another  has  often  been  destroyed,  and  the  cause  many  times  being 
unknown,  the  plumber  has  been  blamed  for  results  that  are  prac- 
tically beyond  his  power  to  remedy. 

In  addition,  the  gas  and  water  and  telephone  and  telegraph 
companies  have  suffered  enormous  losses.  In  the  case  of  the  gas 
and  water  companies,  especially  the  former,  the  loss  has  not  been 
entirely  on  the  piping,  but  loss  of  great  extent  has  occurred  in  the 
w^aste  of  gas  or  water  carried  in  the  pipes. 

The  action  of  electrolysis  is  not  confined  alone  in  its  destructive 
action  to  underground  piping.  The  steel  frames  of  large  city  build- 
ings, the  steel  framework  of  elevated  railways,  and  much  other 
construction  work  of  a  similar  nature  has  also  been  very  seriously 
impaired  from  the  same  cause. 

The  great  losses  due  to  the  action  of  electrolysis,  and  the  danger 
attending  the  results  of  such  action,  have  become  of  such  importance 
that  a  very  large  amount  of  money  has  been  offered  by  a  leading 
scientific  institution  for  a  practicable  remedy  that  will  overcome  its 
effects. 


Plate  XLV 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    WORK    WITHOUT 
USE    OF    LEAD 


RIohe  45. 
Construction    ^f 
lA/<=>rh  with'^ut  Use  <=>/  Lead 


_/^_/o  o/-" 


■J^2^ac:5Q5 


Vejz/- 


^70  oj-  F'loiz^e    [t::^ 


f^ 


I] 


VI/'.C.  C<^nnec/'/^n^ 


k 


7i 


r^9-  A 


f/p.  B. 


Qolv. 


f^/g.  D. 


\ 


CO^/-   I2-<=>2Z  — p^ 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    WORK    WITHOUT    USE    OF    LEAD 

The  present  tendency  of  plumbing  construction  is  toward  the 
use  of  other  metals  than  lead,  cast  and  wrought  iron,  brass  and 
copper  being  the  materials  commonly  used;  w^hereas  in  former  times 
the  entire  drainage  system  was  of  lead,  including  the  soil  piping. 
This  practice  has  reached  such  an  extent  that  many  plumbing  ordi- 
nances restrict  the  use  of  lead  to  short  branches  of  soil  and  waste 
pipes,  closet  bends  and  traps. 

Plate  45  shows  several  illustrations  of  this  class  of  work.  Figs. 
A  and  B  showing  work  in  connection  with  the  Durham  system,  while 
the  three  remaining  illustrations  show  brass  and  wrought-iron  work 
in  connection  with  main  lines  of  cast-iron  pipe.  It  is  entirely  feasible 
to  construct  the  entire  plumbing  system  without  the  use  of  any  lead 
whatever,  and  numerous  buildings  may  be  found  which  are  so  pro- 
vided. Figs.  A  and  B  show  two  methods  of  installing  water-closet 
connections  without  the  use  of  lead.  In  the  latter,  the  long-turn 
elbow  takes  the  place  of  the  lead  bend.  The  connections  in  Fig.  A 
are  very  satisfactory  for  water-closet  work,  giving  a  quick  discharge 
of  the  waste  into  the  main.  Very  often  in  connection  with  a  line  of 
water  closets,  the  connections  of  Fig.  A  may  be  used  without  the 
vent,  and  the  end  of  the  horizontal  main  extended  in  the  form  of 
the  circuit  or  loop  vent.  In  such  work  the  horizontal  line  may  be 
brought  considerably  closer  to  the  fixtures  than  in  Fig.  A. 

In  Fig.  C  the  lavatory  is  served  by  a  brass  trap  and  vented  by 
a  continuous  vent.  When  such  a  fixture  is  located  at  a  distance 
from  a  main  line  of  vent,  this  method  is  very  convenient,  as  the 
vent  can  be  carried  to  the  ceiling  above,  or  under  the  floor,  and  hori- 
zontally to  the  desired  point. 

Fig.  D  shows  the  manner  in  which  a  fixture  connected  in  the 
ordinary  way  may  be  installed  without  the  use  of  lead.  In  Fig.  E 
a  group  of  urinals  and  lavatories  is  connected  in  a  manner  which 
is  very  satisfactory  and  now  much  used.  The  main  horizontal  waste 
line  is  generally  run  above  the  floor,  and  directly  above  it  and  above 

the  highest  fixture,  the  main  horizontal  vent  is  run.     Back  of  each 

271 


272  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

fixture  the  main  waste  and  vent  lines  are  connected  by  a  i^-in. 
vertical  pipe,  and  into  these  vertical  lines  the  fixture  wastes  are  con- 
nected by  a  horizontal  trap  outlet,  into  a  fitting  of  the  T-Y  pattern. 
This  provides  a  continuous  vent  for  each  fixture,  and  effects  a  saving 
in  cost  of  installation  over  the  ordinary  methods. 

The  waste  connections  into  the  horizontal  waste  are  ordinarily 
made  through  T-Y  fittings,  but  it  is  preferable  to  use  a  Y  branch 
and  eighth  bend,  the  waste  passing  ofT  by  this  means  more  smoothly 
than  through  the  T-Y  fitting.  In  the  use  of  wrought-iron  pipe  on 
the  drainage  system,  the  work  may  often  be  put  in  more  compactly 
than  with  cast  iron,  owing  to  the  fact  that  fittings  and  hubs  take  up 
less  room.  This  will  appear  from  Fig.  A.  In  Figs.  A  and  B  the 
brass  floor  flange  for  the  water  closet  is  screwed  into  the  cast-iron 
elbow.  Fig.  F,  Plate  17,  shows  a  detail  of  a  water-closet  connection 
when  the  soil  pipe  is  of  wrought-iron  and  no  lead  bend  is  used.  All 
cast-iron  fittings  used  in  connection  with  wrought-iron  drainage  pipes 
should  be  recessed  fittings,  whether  the  entire  system  is  of  Durham 
construction  or  only  branch  wastes,  as  in  Fig.  C. 

When  the  Durham  system  is  used,  and  it  is  desired  to  connect 
lead  pipe  into  the  w^rought-iron  pipe,  it  may  be  done  by  means  of  a 
brass  soldering  nipple  or  brass  ferrule  caulked  or  screwed  into  the 
wrought  iron,  as  shown  in  connection  with  the  w^ater  closets  in  the 
basement,  in  Plate  44. 

Brass  ferrules  should  be  of  extra  heavy  cast  brass,  not  less  than 
4  in.  in  length  and  2^,  33/^,  and  4^  in.  in  diameter. 


The  w^eights  of  brass  ferrules  should  not  be  less  than  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Diameter  Weight 

2^    in I        lb. 

y/2    "    iM  lbs. 

V,    "    oV.     " 


Soldering  nipples  should  be  of  brass  pipe,  iron-pipe  size,  or  of 
extra-heavy  cast  brass.     Cast-brass  soldering  nipples  should  not  be 


less  than  the  following  in  weight 


Diameter  Weight 

154   in 8  oz. 

2  " 14    " 

2^4    " I  lb.  6  oz. 

3  " 2  lbs. 

4  '' 3    "    8    " 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    WORK  273 

On  several  of  the  foregoing  plates,  illustrations  are  shown  of 
work  constructed  without  the  use  of  lead.  For  instance,  on  Plate 
43,  Fig.  D  shows  a  line  of  porcelain  urinals  constructed  in  this 
manner. 

For  urinal  work,  cast  iron  and  brass  are  preferable  to  wrought- 
iron,  steel,  and  lead  pipe,  for  certain  acids  and  gases  in  the  urine 
which  enters  the  connections  of  this  fixture  act  destructively  on  the 
three  last-named  materials,  and  this  action  is  often  very  rapid. 

There  is  a  considerable  amount  of  work  installed  in  which  the 
only  lead  used  is  the  lead  bend.  The  bath-room  connections  of  Fig. 
E,  Plate  21,  are  an  example  of  this  style  of  work,  in  the  use  of  spe- 
cial fittings. 

Fig.  G,  Plate  22,  shows  the  same  class  of  w^ork  performed  by  the 
use  of  common  fittings. 

Figs.  B  and  C  of  Plate  26,  and  the  illustrations  of  Plates  27  and 
28,  show  plumbing  construction  provided  with  continuous  vents,  in 
which  brass  traps  may  be  used,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  lead.  These 
illustrations  show  clearly  that  continuous  vent  work  favors  the  use 
of  other  materials  than  lead.  Plate  36  shows  an  entire  plumbing 
system  in  which  the  only  lead  material  used  is  the  lead  water-closet 
bends,  and,  if  desired,  other  materials  may  be  used  in  place  of  these. 

Fig.  E,  Plate  38,  shows  connections  of  wrought  iron  for  a  line 
of  lavatories  which  give  satisfaction  and  make  a  very  neat  appear- 
ance. Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  lead  has  but  a  small  place  in  the 
construction  of  present-day  plumbing  in  the  larger  cities,  and  on 
large  work  especially. 

The  displacing  of  lead  in  plumbing  construction  by  such  mate- 
rials as  cast  and  wrought  iron  and  brass  is  attended  by  results  both 
favorable  and  unfavorable,  some  of  which  may  be  seen  from  the 
following.  The  great  objection  to  the  use  of  lead,  as  stated  else- 
where, is  that  when  run  of  considerable  length  it  will  sag  and  form 
traps,  owing  to  the  softness  of  the  metal.  This  objection  is  cer- 
tainly not  encountered  in  the  use  of  wrought-  and  cast-iron  and 
brass  piping. 

There  are  many  places  where  lead  will  give  better  service,  how- 
ever, than  material  of  a  stififer  nature.  For  instance,  lead  will  stand 
sudden  strains  and  concussions  better  than  cast-  or  wrought-iron  or 
brass  pipes.  For  this  reason  it  is  alwa3^s  advisable  to  use  lead  on 
the  suction  pipes  of  pumps,  water  lifts,  etc.     On  such  work  as  this, 


274  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

lead  pipe  does  not  develop  the  leaks  that  other  materials  do.  In 
connection  with  the  use  of  lead  for  suction  pipes,  it  may  be  stated 
that  in  the  event  of  a  leak  on  the  suction  pipe  it  is  far  easier  to 
locate  it  if  the  pipe  is  of  lead  than  if  of  wrought  iron. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  sound  made  by  the  passage  of 
air  through  the  leak  telephones  along  the  length  of  the  wrought- 
iron  pipe  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  through  lead  pipe,  the  result 
being  that  it  is  difficult  ofttimes  to  locate  the  exact  place  where  the 
defect  exists,  while  in  lead  pipe  the  noise  can  be  heard  only  indis- 
tinctly at  distant  points. 

The  objections  to  the  employment  of  wrought  iron  and  steel  on 
the  drainage  and  vent  systems  are  considered  thoroughly  under  the 
subject  of  the  Durham  system. 

It  may  be  stated  that  while  certain  disadvantages  exist  in  con- 
nection with  the  use  of  lead,  wrought-iron,  and  steel  pipes  for  drain- 
age and  vent  purposes,  there  is  almost  nothing  that  can  be  said 
against  the  use  of  cast  iron  and  brass  for  the  same  purposes. 


Plate  XLVI 

THE    DISPOSAL    OF    SEWAGE  OF  FIXTURES 
LOCATED    BELOW    SEWER    LEVEL— AU- 
TOMATIC   SEWAGE    LIFTS— AUTO- 
MATIC   SUMP    TANKS 


R/a/-e   46. 

A  uh  *=>m  0/-/C    Sey/age 

Lift 


■f 


r;:^=» 


£: 


T^alT^e> 


CJ^ecIt 


MiS- 


f^  07^  e  cit 


THE  DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE  OF  FIXTURES  LOCATED 
BELOW  SEWER  LEVEL— AUTOMATIC  SEWAGE  LIFTS 
—AUTOMATIC   SUMP  TANKS 

In  the  larger  cities  there  are  many  instances  where  phimbing- 
fixtures  are  located  below  the  level  of  the  street  sewer,  in  which  case 
it  is  obviously  impossible  to  discharge  the  waste  coming  from  them, 
into  the  sewer  by  gravity.  Such  conditions  must  be  dealt  with  in 
the  sub-basement  floors  of  numerous  tall  city  buildings,  underground 
toilet  rooms  or  public-comfort  stations,  and  in  underground  or  sub- 
way passenger  stations. 

Briefly  stated,  the  method  of  handling  such  sewage  is  to  convey 
it  by  gravity  through  the  ordinary  soil  and  waste  lines  into  a  receiv- 
ing tank,  from  which  it  is  pumped  or  ejected  by  other  means,  into 
the  house  sewer  of  the  gravity  system. 

In  addition  to  fixture  drainage,  the  matter  of  subsoil  drainage, 
which  is  often  a  very  considerable  matter  in  underground  work,  must 
be  taken  care  of. 

There  are  several  methods  of  raising  the  low-level  sewage  into 
the  gravity  house  drain. 

It  may  be  done  by  pumps  of  different  kinds,  or  by  means  of 
automatic  sewage  lifts,  several  of  which  are  now  on  the  market,  and 
operated  by  compressed  air  or  steam. 

A  sectional  view  of  such  a  sewage  lift  or  ejector  is  to  be  seen 
in  Plate  46. 

When  pumps  are  to  be  used,  the  low-level  sewage  is  discharged 
into  a  receiving  tank  located  below  the  level  of  the  lowest  fixtures, 
each  soil  or  waste  inlet  to  the  tank  being  trapped,  and  the  trap  sup- 
plied with  a  vent,  which  may  be  connected  into  any  main  vent  of  the 
gravity  system. 

A  tank  of  this  kind  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  the  sewage 
collecting  during  several  hours,  if  the  discharge  from  it  is  automatic, 
and  if  not,  it  shotild  be  large  enough  to  hold  the  sewage  entering  it 
during  twenty-four  hours. 

As  nearly  above  the  tank  as  possible,  a  centrifugal  pump  is  set, 
which  is  operated  by  an  electric  motor,     A  float  inside  the  tank  is 

arranged  to  rise  with  the  sewage  in  the  tank,  and  when  it  has  filled 

277 


278  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

to  a  certain  point,  the  rising  of  the  float  locks  an  electric  switch 
which  controls  the  motor.  The  motor  is  thus  set  in  action,  operat- 
ing the  pump,  and  the  latter  quickly  draws  out  the  contents  of  the 
tank  and  forces  them  into  the  house  sewer  of  the  gravity  system. 
The  suction  of  the  pump  should  reach  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tank  in  order  to  draw  out  all  the  heavy  matter.  To  the  tank  a  fresh- 
air  inlet  should  be  connected,  not  only  to  serve  the  ordinary  pur- 
pose of  the  fresh-air  inlet,  but  to  relieve  the  tank  while  it  is  filling 
and  to  aid  the  pump  by  admitting  air  when  the  latter  is  in  action. 
The  pump  may  also  be  set  on  the  same  level  as  the  tank,  and,  in  fact, 
works  to  better  advantage  when  so  set,  as  no  primer  is  necessary, 
and  the  apparatus  is  thereby  considerably  simplified.  Piston  pumps 
are  also  used  in  raising  sewage  from  low  levels. 

The  centrifugal  form  of  pump  is  best  adapted  to  large  volumes 
of  sewage  which  are  not  to  be  raised  very  high,  while  piston  pumps 
will  raise  smaller  amounts  through  much  greater  distances. 

In  the  use  of  piston  pumps,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  prevent 
anything  but  clear  sewage  from  entering,  as  the  coarser  and  gritty 
matter  works  destructively  on  the  working  parts  of  the  pump. 

The  great  objection  to  the  use  of  pumps  in  disposing  of  low- 
level  sewage  is  the  cost  of  operating. 

The  use  of  automatic  sewage  ejectors,  however,  is  accompanied 
with  small  running  expenses,  and  they  have  many  advantages  over 
the  use  of  pumps,  chief  among  which  is  the  fact  that  there  are  almost 
no  working  parts  to  get  out  of  order,  and  very  few  auxiliary  devices, 
which  are  expensive  to  operate,  as  in  the  case  of  electric  motors  used 
on  pumps. 

In  Plate  46  is  shown  such  an  apparatus,  operating  automatically, 
and  designed  especially  for  this  kind  of  work. 

There  are  several  other  makes  that  may  be  obtained,  all  work- 
ing on  more  or  less  similar  principles.  Compressed  air  has  proved 
the  most  satisfactory  motive  power,  but  very  often  these  machines 
are  provided  with  appliances  by  means  of  which  steam  or  water  may 
be  used  to  operate  them  in  the  event  of  an  interruption  in  the  com- 
pressed-air apparatus. 

The  action  of  the  automatic  sewage  lift  is  the  following:  Sew- 
age from  the  levels  below  the  crown  of  the  sewer  is  conducted, 
through  various  lines  of  soil  and  waste  pipe,  into  a  sewage  tank  or 
receiver. 


DISPOSAL    OF    SEWAGE  279 

Inside  the  receiver  an  open  bucket  rests  upon  the  surface  of 
the  sewage,  rising  as  the  latter  rises.  When  it  has  risen  to  a  cer- 
tain point,  the  rod  to  which  it  is  connected,  and  which  passes  through 
a  stuffing  box  at  the  top  of  the  tank,  by  means  of  a  lever  attachment 
trips  a  valve  on  the  compressed-air  supply  pipe,  the  same  action  clos- 
ing a  valve  on  the  vent  pipe  of  the  apparatus.  Compressed  air  is  at 
once  admitted  upon  the  surface  of  the  sewage  in  the  receiver,  and  is 
sufficient  in  pressure  to  raise  this  sewage  through  the  outlet  and  into 
the  house  sewer  of  the  gravity  system. 

A  pressure  of  2  pounds  should  be  provided  for  each  foot  in  height 
through  which  the  sewage  is  to  be  raised. 

When  the  pressure  of  the  compressed  air  is  exerted  on  the  sew- 
age, it  closes  the  check  valve  on  the  inlet  to  the  receiver,  and  opens 
the  check  valve  on  the  outlet,  and  as  the  closing  of  the  vent  pipe 
closes  the  only  other  path  for  the  sewage,  it  must  pass  out  through 
the  proper  outlet. 

As  the  water  in  the  receiver  falls,  the  bucket,  which  is  weighted 
with  the  water  which  it  holds,  follows  with  it,  and  when  it  reaches 
a  point  near  the  bottom,  the  lever  attachment  shuts  the  valve  which 
controls  the  compressed-air  supply,  and  opens  the  vent  valve,  thus 
venting  the  air  confined  in  the  receiver.  The  ejector  is  now  ready 
for  another  operation.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  ejector  acts  as  a  trap, 
and  therefore  the  use  of  a  main  trap  is  unnecessary  in  connection 
with  it. 

The  receiver  of  the  ejector  should  be  vented,  such  vent  usually 
being  connected  into  some  convenient  main  vent  on  the  gravity- 
drainage  system.  Air  compressors  and  a  storage  tank  for  com- 
pressed air  are  necessary  features  of  a  plant  of  this  kind. 

The  valves  on  the  inlet  and  outlet  pipes  of  the  ejector  are  for 
use  in  the  event  that  it  is  desired  to  disconnect  any  one  of  several 
sewage  lifts  that  are  connected  together  on  the  same  system.  The 
automatic  sewage  lift  is  generally  installed  in  a  brick  or  iron  well 
and  made  accessible  in  case  of  inspection  and  repairs.  In  handling 
the  low-level  sewage  of  some  of  the  immense  hotels  of  the  large 
cities,  apparatus  must  be  used  which  is  able  to  discharge  many  thou- 
sands of  gallons  of  sewage  each  hour. 

This  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  ejectors  of  the  type  shown 
in  Plate  46,  by  connecting  several  of  the  lifts  together. 

When  so  connected,  combination  lifts  working  under  either  com- 


28o  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

pressed  air  or  steam  are  generall}^  used,  in  order  that  in  the  event 
of  a  breakdown  on  one  source  of  motive  power,  the  other  may  at 
once  be  made  use  of.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  no  chances  can  be 
taken  in  providing  against  a  mishap  which  may  totally  disable  an 
entire  system  of  this  kind,  for  it  is  a  question  of  handling  a  great 
many  thousands  of  gallons  each  hour,  and  when  this  cannot  be  done, 
and  the  sewage  constantly  accumulates  at  this  high  rate,  the  situa- 
tion becomes  very  serious. 

When  several  ejectors  are  connected  together,  the  main  sewage 
inlet  divides  the  sewage  between  the  different  ejectors,  and  each  one 
discharges  into  a  main. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  this  method  of  disposal  are  the  fol- 
lowing: No  pumping  apparatus,  with  working  parts  to  get  out  of 
repair,  is  necessary;  there  are  practically  no  working  parts  in  the 
lift  to  get  out  of  order;  the  receiving  tank,  in  w^iich  the  work  of  the 
apparatus  is  chiefly  performed,  has  no  finished  surfaces  or  parts  on 
which  the  coarser  matter  in  the  sewage  may  act  injuriously;  and  the 
tank  acts  as  a  trap  to  protect  the  building  against  the  entrance  of 
gases  from  the  sewer. 

In  addition  to  the  matter  of  caring  for  fixture  drainage,  sub- 
soil drainage,  floor  drainage,  etc.,  must  also  be  provided  for.  This 
drainage  is  usually  disposed  of  by  other  apparatus  than  that  used  in 
connection  wath  polluted  drainage,  the  apparatus  being  known  as  the 
automatic  sump  tank,  an  illustration  of  which  appears  in  Plate  46. 
This  tank  is  installed  in  a  water-tight  catch  basin  or  pit,  constructed 
of  brick  or  iron.  Subsoil,  floor  drainage,  and  any  other  clear-water 
drainage  that  must  be  taken  care  of,  should  enter  the  pit  through 
inlets  provided  with  check  valves,  as  shown,  all  drains  being  trapped 
in  the  usual  manner.  The  tank  should  be  air-tight  and  vented,  gen- 
erally into  some  convenient  main  vent  in  the  gravity  system.  The 
action  of  the  automatic  sump  tank  is  similar  to  that  of  the  automatic 
sewage  lift  already  described. 

When  the  bucket  is  raised  by  the  drainage  in  the  tank  to  the 
right  height,  it  opens  the  compressed-air  supply  valve  and  closes  the 
vent  pipe,  the  admission  of  compressed  air  forcing  the  contents  out 
of  the  tank  and  into  the  main  gravity  line. 

A  wise  provision  in  the  installation  of  automatic  sewage  lifts  on 
large  work,  is  that  they  shall  be  provided  in  pairs,  each  being  large 
enough  to  hold  the  drainage  accumulating  from  the  fixtures  during 


DISPOSAL    OF    SEWAGE 


2»I 


an  hour.  The  two  ejectors  should  be  so  connected  that  they  will 
operate  alternately.  When  water  closets  discharge  into  sewage 
ejectors,  the  vent  from  the  apparatus  should  not  be  less  than  4  in. 
in  diameter,  and  when  other  fixtures  only  are  connected  into  it,  the 
vent  should  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  main  waste  pipe  serving  such 
fixtures. 

There  is  another  form  of  ejector  sometimes  used,  which  dis- 
charges low-level  sewage  into  the  house  sewer  of  the  regular  sys- 
tem, also  by  means  of  compressed  air. 

The  compression  of  the  air  in  this  apparatus,  however,  is  accom- 
plished by  the  head  of  the  sewage  in  the  gravity  system  discharged 
into  a  large  tank.  Water  from  the  public  water  supply  may  also 
operate  this  system,  and  this  water  afterward  be  used  in  supplying 
fixtures  on  the  floors  below  the  sewer  level.  This  system,  while  not 
particularly  well  known,  has  the  advantage  of  disposing  of  the  sew- 
age without  apparatus  which  entails  expense  in  installing  and  in 
operating. 

Of  the  several  different  methods  mentioned  or  described  for 
raising  low-level  sewage,  the  automatic  sewage  lift,  operating  by 
compressed  air,  with  steam  as  an  auxiliary,  is,  in  general,  the  most 
desirable. 

In  order  to  determine  the  size  of  lift  needed  for  any  given  plant, 
the  amount  of  waste  entering  it  must  be  known,  and  to  estimate  this 
it  is  necessary  to  know  the  number  and  character  of  all  plumbing- 
fixtures  below  the  sewer  level,  the  number  of  floor  drains,  and  the 
character  and  size  of  all  other  drains  and  apparatus  from  which 
waste  of  any  description  is  discharged. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  know  the  size  of  the  gravity  house  sewer, 
and  the  kind  of  power  that  is  to  operate  the  lift,  with  full  data  con- 
cerning pressure,  etc.,  relating  to  such  motive  power. 

In  addition  to  its  use  in  connection  with  underground  floors  of 
high  buildings  and  underground  public  toilet  rooms,  there  are  sev- 
eral other  uses  to  which  the  automatic  sewage  lift  may  be  put. 

It  often  happens  that  small  villages  or  hamlets,  situated  in  level 
country,  which  has  no  advantages  for  disposing  of  public  sewage  by 
gravity,  are  in  a  perplexing  situation.  The  sewage  lift  may  be  used 
to  advantage  under  such  conditions. 

By  installing  it  in  a  pit  underground,  as  low  as  desired,  enough 
pitch  can  be  obtained  to  allow  the  discharge  of  the  public  sewer  into 


2«2^ 


MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 


it.  The  lift  may  discharge  the  sewage  into  a  septic  tank  at  a  higher 
level,  and  this  tank  in  turn  onto  filter  beds,  the  latter  delivering  the 
clear  sewage  which  results,  into  underground  distributing  pipes. 
More  concerning  the  septic  tank,  filter  beds,  and  underground  dis- 
tribution will  be  found  under  following  plates. 

If  other  sources  of  motive  power  are  not  available,  the  lift  may 
be  operated  by  water. 

The  sewage  lift  is  used  in  many  marine  plumbing  systems  also. 
The  apparatus  is  located  below  all  fixtures,  which  discharge  into  it 
by  gravity,  the  lift  discharging  the  sewage  into  the  sea. 

This  is  an  important  application,  as  the  disposal  of  sewage  of 
large  steamships,  as  well  as  other  vessels,  is  a  matter  of  importance 
and  difficulty. 


Plate  XLVII 

COUNTRY    PLUMBING— WATER    SUPPLY 


R/oZ-e.    4^. 

Country  R/umbing 


^-y 


rr 


1 


J'2:'^JF73.  ^C72Z.Jt 


COUNTRY    PLUMBING 

The  subject  of  country  plumbing  differs  in  many  respects  from 
the  plumbing  of  cities  and  towns.  The  difference  arises  principally 
because  of  the  fact  that  usually  the  plumbing  system  installed  in  the 
country  cannot  enter  a  system  of  public  sewers,  and  a  water  supply 
cannot  be  secured  from  any  public  system  of  supply.  These  condi- 
tions make  it  necessary  to  study  each  individual  plumbing  system, 
and  to  provide  for  it  as  conditions  require. 

Another  feature  that  also  influences  the  installation  of  the  plumb- 
ing system,  is  the  absence  of  any  regulation  or  inspection  of  plumbing- 
work.  As  a  consequence,  many  houses  in  the  country,  of  ordinary 
style,  are  provided  with  an  unvented  plumbing  system.  This,  how- 
ever, in  many  cases  need  not  be  a  serious  matter,  as  on  small  systems 
special  provision  may  often  be  made  for  making  the  work  as  safe  as 
is  possible  to  make  it  when  the  traps  are  not  vented. 

Plate  47  shows  such  a  plumbing  system. 

In  many  cases  one  stack  serves  all  plumbing  fixtures  of  the 
house,  including  usually  the  three  bath-room  fixtures,  kitchen  sink, 
and,  possibly,  laundry  tubs.  The  use  of  S-traps  on  such  work  is  poor 
practice,  as  this  form  of  trap  is  easily  siphoned,  unless  provided  with 
a  vent.  The  use  of  drum  traps  and  approved  forms  of  non-siphonable 
traps  is  much  better  practice.  As  far  as  possible,  long,  horizontal 
runs  of  lead  waste  pipe  should  be  avoided  in  an  unvented  plumbing 
system,  as  siphonage  often  results  from  the  backing  up  of  waste  in 
these  long  runs.  The  connections  from  bath-room  fixtures  into  the 
stack  can  usually  be  arranged  as  shown  in  Plate  47,  with  the  lavatory 
waste  entering  above  the  water-closet  connection.  If  the  lavatory 
connection  is  below  the  closet  connection,  the  liability  of  siphonage 
of  the  lavatory  trap  will  be  greater,  owing  to  the  passage  of  a 
heavy  volume  of  waste  from  the  water  closet  past  the  lavatory  waste 
opening. 

The  passage  of  the  stack  through  the  roof  is  a  great  safeguard 

for  any  system  of  plumbing,  especially  in  the  case  of  an  unvented 

system.     When  the  country  plumbing  system  empties  into  a  cesspool 

or  septic  tank,  a  vent  should  be  run  from  such  receptacle.    The  septic 

285 


286  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

tank  or  cesspool,  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  country  plumbing" 
system  that  the  public  sewer  system  does  to  the  city  plumbing  system. 

If  the  cesspool  or  sewer  is  not  vented,  gases  will  generate  and 
produce  a  pressure  that  will  force  the  seal  of  the  main  trap. 

The  soil  vent  or  roof  connection  relieves  this  pressure,  which  is 
a  duty  of  much  importance,  for  if  not  thus  relieved,  the  fixture  traps 
will  also  be  forced,  and  poisonous  gases  from  the  cesspool  thus  find 
entrance  into  the  house.  The  use  or  non-iise  of  the  main  trap  does 
not  appear  to  be  a  matter  of  so  much  importance  in  connection  with 
the  country  plumbing  system  as  with  the  city  system.  One  reason 
for  this  is  that  in  the  country  districts  there  is  no  danger  of  con- 
taminating the  surrounding  air  by  venting  the  cesspool,  whereas  in 
the  city  the  venting  of  the  sewer  through  the  soil  vents  of  a  build- 
ing only  a  few  stories  in  height  may  throw  foul  odors  and  gases  into 
the  windows  of  a  high  building  next  to  it. 

There  is  one  reason  why  the  main  trap  is  of  much  value  to  many 
country  systems.  There  being  no  regulation  by  ordinance,  or  inspec- 
tion of  plumbing,  much  poor  work  is  installed  that  remains  undiscov- 
ered, which  a  test  would  quickly  reveal ;  and,  moreover,  standard  soil 
pipe  is  generally  used,  which  is  easily  split  in  handling,  and  which  has 
more  defects  than  extra-heavy  pipe.  Consequently,  sewer  gas  would 
have  a  much  greater  opportunity  to  find  its  way  through  defective 
pipe  and  joints  than  in  work  of  a  higher  grade,  and  the  main  trap 
will  prevent  much  of  this  trouble,  by  preventing  the  entrance  into  the 
plumbing  system  of  the  house,  of  gases  from  the  cesspool. 

The  subjects  of  cesspools,  sewage  siphons,  septic  tanks,  etc.,  are 
considered  more  thoroughly  under  the  two  plates  following. 

WATER    SUPPLY 

The  manner  in  which  the  water  supply  for  the  country  house 
shall  be  procured  is  always  a  matter  of  importance,  and  usually 
depends  largely  upon  the  natural  facilities  that  exist.  The  methods 
commonly  in  use,  are  pumping  by  hand  from  wells  or  by  power — such 
as  windmill  or  pumping  engine — supply  by  gravity,  by  siphonage,  or 
by  the  use  of  a  ram.  In  the  use  of  a  gravity  supply,  the  source  of 
supply  must  be  at  a  higher  elevation  than  the  point  of  delivery.  The 
siphon  is  used  in  procuring  water  from  a  higher  point  than  the  point 
of  delivery,  when  a  hill  or  other  obstruction  intervenes  between  the 


WATER    SUPPLY  287 

two  points,  and  over  which  the  supply  hne  must  be  carried.  The  ram 
can  be  used  only  when  the  source  of  supply  is  lower  than  the  point 
of  delivery,  and  when  the  supply  is  so  located  that  the  ram  may  be 
placed  at  a  point  below  it.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  procuring  a 
water  supply,  local  conditions  must  usually  govern  the  matter.  In 
order  to  provide  a  head  which  shall  deliver  the  water  at  the  several 
points  where  it  is  to  be  used,  an  attic  storage  tank  is  generally  used. 
A  tank  of  300  to  500  gallons  will  be  found  to  be  large  enough  for 
the  ordinary  country  home.  The  tank  when  filled,  represents  an 
immense  weight,  and  care  must  be  taken  in  giving  it  a  proper  sup- 
port. This  is  easily  done  in  installing  a  tank  in  a  house  in  course 
of  construction,  but  is  often  a  difficult  matter  in  an  old  house.  The 
tank  should  be  located  where  it  will  not  freeze,  near  a  chimney  often 
being  a  good  location.  The  top  of  the  tank  should  be  covered,  in 
order  that  dust  and  dirt  and  odors  may  not  reach  the  water,  and  a 
ventilating  pipe  should  also  be  provided. 

The  tank  may  be  filled  in  many  ways — by  hand  or  power  pump, 
windmill,  pumping  engine,  or  ram.  Plate  47  shows  the  discharge 
pipe  from  the  pump  delivering  to  the  tank  over  the  top,  the  supply 
pipe  to  fixtures  being  taken  out  of  the  bottom.  Another  very  good 
method  is  to  connect  the  pump  pipe  into  the  bottom  of  the  tank  and 
use  this  same  pipe  as  the  down  supply  to  the  fixtures. 

This  will  save  the  necessity  of  running  a  separate  supply  pipe 
to  the  fixtures,  and  answers  the  purpose  as  well. 

If  a  hand  force  pump  is  used,  as  shown  in  Plate  47,  a  faucet 
on  the  pump  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Drinking  water  may  be 
pumped  direct  from  the  well  through  the  faucet,  and  when  this  is 
closed  it  may  be  ptimped  into  the  tank. 

A  tell-tale  should  always  be  provided,  which  should  end,  if  pos- 
sible, at  the  point  where  the  pump  is  located,  in  order  that  the  per- 
son operating  the  pump  may  know  by  the  escape  of  water,  when  the 
tank  has  been  sufficiently  filled.  The  tell-tale  may  enter  the  side  of 
the  tank,  as  shown,  or  pass  through  the  bottom  into  a  standing 
overflow. 

The  attic  tank  should  have  an  overflow  either  of  i%-  or  i^^-in. 
pipe,  which,  if  possible,  should  empty  onto  a  roof.  It  may  be  carried 
into  a  fixture  on  a  floor  below.  It  is  often  convenient  to  discharge 
the  overflow  into  the  water-closet  flush  tank. 

When  the  attic  tank  is  used,  the  hot-water  supply  for  the  house 


28a  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

is  under  tank  pressure,  and  in  order  to  provide  for  expansion,  an 
expansion  pipe  should  be  taken  from  the  highest  point  of  the  hot- 
water  system  and  carried  over  the  top  of  the  tank,  into  which  any 
expansion  may  vent  itself. 

Lender  the  tank  a  safe  or  drip  pan  should  be  placed,  to  take  care 
of  any  leakage  from  the  tank.  From  the  safe  a  drip  should  be  run 
into  some  open  fixture  in  common  use,  in  order  that,  by  the  escape 
of  leakage  through  the  pipe,  warning  of  trouble  may  be  given  as 
quickly  as  possible.  Sheet  lead  is  generally  used  for  drip  pans  or 
safes,  while  sheet  copper  is  now  mostly  used  for  tank  linings.  When 
the  attic  tank  is  filled  from  a  pump  or  ram,  the  ball  cock  and  valve 
are  not  used,  but  when  a  supply  by  gravity  is  used,  the  ball  cock  and 
valve  are  necessary  in  order  to  regulate  the  flow  of  water  as  it  is 
needed. 

A  great  objection  to  many  well  waters  is  their  excessive  hard- 
ness, which  make  them  objectionable  for  kitchen  and  latmdry  pur- 
poses. When  the  natural  supply  is  of  this  nature,  the  rain  water 
falling  on  the  roof  of  the  house  is  collected  and  used  for  these  pur- 
poses entirely,  or  as  far  as  possible. 

Rain  water  may  be  discharged  directly  from  the  roof  into  the 
attic  tank,  as  shown  in  Plate  47,  the  objection  to  this  course  being 
that  a  large  part  of  the  water  must  be  lost  through  the  overflow, 
and  in  the  event  of  the  stoppage  of  the  overflow  during  a  heavy 
storm,  the  house  would  be  in  danger  of  being  flooded.  Instead  of 
discharging  the  overflow  upon  the  roof,  it  may  be  carried  into  a 
cistern,  and  all  the  water  needed,  thus  saved.  If  desirable,  the  rain 
water  may  not  be  connected  directly  into  the  attic  tank,  but  may  be 
discharged  into  the  cistern. 

In  either  case  of  using  the  cistern,  a  pump  must  be  used  to  force 
the  water  into  the  attic  tank.  When  the  rain  water  is  thus  utilized, 
wholly  or  in  part,  the  pump  connection  with  the  well  may  be  allowed 
to  remain  as  shown  in  Plate  47,  to  be  used  whenever  the  cistern 
water  gives  out,  and  for  providing  through  the  pump  faucet,  a  sup- 
ply of  drinking  water. 

In  the  use  of  the  faucet,  there  will  often  be  sufficient  storage  of 
water  in  the  pipe  between  the  pump  and  the  tank,  without  having 
to  pump. 

It  is  best  to  use  a  cistern  capable  of  holding  a  month's  supply 
of  rain  water,  in  order  that  when  a  rainy  period  comes,  enough  water 


WATER    SUPPLY  289 

may  be  stored  to  last  until  it  will  probabl}^  be  renewed.  When  entire 
dependence  is  made  upon  rain  water,  storage  should  be  provided  for 
a  period  of  six  weeks,  if  possible,  at  the  rate  of  about  twenty-five 
gallons  per  day  for  each  inmate  of  the  house.  To  some  this  rate  of 
water  use  may  seem  excessive,  but  it  is  low  rather  than  high,  as 
extended  experience  shows. 

When  the  water  supply  must  be  economized,  a  much  lower 
amount  may  be  figured  on,  but  when  plumbing  fixtures,  such  as 
water  closets,  are  constantly  in  use,  the  rate  increases  rapidl}^ 

If  possible,  rain  water  should  be  screened  before  entering  the 
attic  tank,  as  leaves,  twigs,  slate,  etc.,  enter  the  cistern  in  consider- 
able quantity.  Filters  are  sometimes  used  for  clearing  the  water, 
and  screens  of  various  kinds  are  employed.  Devices  known  as  rain- 
water separators  may  also  be  procured,  wdiich  prevent  the  first  wash- 
ings of  a  rain  storm  from  entering  the  tank  or  cistern. 

W^ell  water  is  no  doubt  used  to  a  far  greater  extent  in  the  coun- 
try than  any  other  source  of  supply.  Whether  it  is  a  well  or  spring 
or  other  source  of  supply,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  pro- 
viding against  its  contamination  in  any  way.  It  is  popularly  con- 
sidered that  the  country  is  free  from  all  manner  of  impure  condi- 
tions, but  it  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  in  the  past,  the  death  rate  in 
country  districts,  where,  apparently,  living  conditions  are  perfect, 
has  been  as  great  or  greater  from  such  diseases  as  typhoid  fever 
than  in  cities. 

Generally  a  case  of  this  dreaded  disease  in  the  country,  may  be 
traced  to  a  contaminated  well  or  other  supply.  For  this  reason  every 
precaution  should  be  taken. 

The  well  should  never  be  located  near  a  leeching  cesspool,  it 
being  well  to  have  at  least  300  ft.  separate  them.  A  tight  cesspool 
should  not  be  located  within  30  ft.  of  any  well  or  other  source  of 
supply. 

In  running  a  line  of  earthenware  drain  pipe,  it  should  be  kept 
as  far  away  from  any  source  of  water  supply  as  possible. 

Whenever  possible,  a  cesspool  or  drain-pipe  line  should  be  lo- 
cated at  a  lower  elevation  than  the  well,  in  order  that  the  natural 
drainage  may  carry  any  leakage  away  from,  rather  than  toward, 
the  well. 

The  location  and  common  use  of  wells  within  a  few  feet  of 
privies,  is  a  practice  which  may  be  seen  in  almost  any  country  dis- 


290  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

trict,  and  is  a  practice  which  has  been  the  direct  cause  of  a  large 
part  of  the  t3^phoid-fever  cases  in  the  country. 

It  is  claimed  that  contaminated  water  in  running  through  a  com- 
paratively few  feet  of  soil,  will  purify  itself,  and  on  the  strength  of 
this  claim,  many  are  willing  to  take  chances  in  the  use  of  drinking 
water  coming  from  exposed  sources. 

While  this  fact  may  be  true  under  certain  circumstances,  it  has 
little  in  it  to  cause  a  lessening  of  precautionary  measures,  as  the  con- 
taminating source  is  usually  a  permanent  one,  and  the  action  of 
purification  by  filtration  is  not  to  be  depended  upon  at  a  depth  of 
more  than  three  or  four  feet,  as  the  admission  of  air,  upon  which 
the  action  depends,  is  not  sufficient  at  greater  depths. 

Wells  are  of  three  kinds,  those  which  are  dug,  driven  wells,  and 
bored  wells. 

The  first  named  is  the  most  common,  and  the  driven  well  next. 

Even  the  driven  or  bored  well  is  by  no  means  proof  against 
contamination,  as  impurities  may  enter  the  water  at  considerable 
distances  from  the  well. 

Many  waters  of  sparkling  appearance,  and  apparently  abso- 
lutely pure,  are  very  far  from  being  what  they  appear,  and  too  much 
attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  matter  of  precaution  in  securing  a 
supply  for  country  use  which  is  absolutely  pure,  and  then  seeing  to 
it  that  it  is  not  contaminated  later. 


Plate  XLVIII 

CONSTRUCTION    AND    USE    OF    CESSPOOLS 


R/aZ-e  48, 

C^nshrucl'i'=^n 


Fre<sM  Air  Ii^Icf 


Cessn<=><=>/ 


C  ^mJb/na/'/<='n 


E==D3 


Leech/ng  ^   T/^h/-  Ces^p^^/ 


1 1  -1  v;  //  JIN//  cr  //  ^  //  \\  //  -  \\  //  —  Ki^y^ywy^  ^  ii  -  o  a^  .  -  ^ 


~\ 


CONSTRUCTION    AND    USE    OF    CESSPOOLS 

The  cesspool  is  made  use  of  only  in  the  absence  of  public 
sewers.  Whenever  entrance  may  be  made  into  a  public  sewer,  the 
use  of  the  cesspool  should  be  discontinued  entirely.  After  public 
sewers  have  been  constructed,  cesspools  are  sometimes  connected 
into  the  sewer  instead  of  replacing  them  entirely,  with  a  direct  con- 
nection from  house  to  sewer.  This  is  extremely  poor  practice,  for 
the  cesspool  should  always  be  considered  simply  as  a  makeshift,  made 
necessary  by  the  absence  of  better  facilities.  The  worst  feature  that 
presents  itself  in  country  plumbing,  is  the  disposal  of  the  soil  in 
house  sewage. 

When,  as  occasionally  happens,  the  sewage  of  a  house  may  be  dis- 
charged into  a  running  stream,  the  difficulty  may  be  solved  in  the  case 
of  that  particular  house,  although  for  all  points  lower  down  on  such  a 
stream,  the  water  is  polluted  and  should  not  be  used  for  drinking  pur- 
poses. Therefore  this  method  is  usually  out  of  the  question,  even 
though  such  a  stream  is  at  hand.  The  only  other  practical  method  is 
to  discharge  the  house  sewage  into  a  tank,  from  which  the  liquids  may 
escape  into  the  surrounding  soil,  the  tank  retaining  the  solid  matter, 
including  soil.  Such  a  tank  or  compartment  is  called  a  cesspool. 
In  Plate  48  are  shown  two  forms  of  cesspool,  the  leeching  and  com- 
bination leeching  and  tight  cesspools.  The  former  is  by  far  the  more 
common  type.  The  leeching  cesspool  is  built  of  loose  brick  or  stone, 
without  the  use  of  cement.  Through  the  crevices  or  joints  in  the 
sides  of  the  cesspool,  the  liquids  leech  out  into  the  surrounding  soil, 
leaving  the  solid  matter  to  remain  in  the  cesspool.  A  serious  objec- 
tion to  the  use  of  this  form  of  cesspool  is  that,  after  a  time,  the 
crevices  become  filled  with  soil  and  other  solid  matter,  and  the  leech- 
ing process  is  interfered  with.  Another  objection  is  that  more  or 
less  solid  matter  passes  off  with  the  liquid  into  the  surrounding  soil, 
thereby  in  time  destroying  it  as  a  filtering  medium,  upon  the  effect- 
iveness of  which,  the  proper  action  of  the  cesspool  depends.  To  be 
sure,  when  these  results  have  come  about,  the  liquids  entering  the 
cesspool  may  be  carried  into  a  second  cesspool  through  an  overflow, 

293 


294  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

in  which  case  the  first  cesspool  will  continue  to  retain  the  solid  part 
of  the  sewage,  and  the  second  cesspool  to  dispose  of  the  liquids,  some- 
what in  the  manner  of  the  septic  tank. 

When  the  first  cesspool  has  become  filled  it  may  be  emptied, 
and  its  use  continued.  Instead  of  discharging  into  one  cesspool  and 
overflowing  into  a  second  one,  it  may  be  more  desirable,  when  the 
first  cesspool  is  no  longer  able  to  perform  its  duties  satisfactorily, 
to  abandon  it,  disconnect  the  house  drain  from  it  and  reconnect  into 
a  cesspool  located  in  new  soil. 

The  only  proper  location  for  a  leeching  cesspool  is  in  light  or 
sandy  soil,  into  which  the  liquids  may  leech  and  purify  themselves 
by  filtration.  Sand  is  a  recognized  filtering  medium.  Filtration 
depends  upon  the  action  of  certain  bacteria  which  exist  in  the  soil, 
their  numbers  being  far  greater  in  light  soils  than  in  those  which 
are  heavier,  as  in  the  former,  air  has  an  opportunity  to  reach  the 
bacteria,  without  which  the  bacteria  are  unable  to  live. 

Therefore,  at  considerable  depths,  the  action  of  filtration  is  not 
nearly  so  strong  as  at  points  nearer  the  surface,  and  for  this  reason, 
cesspools  of  comparatively  small  depth  will  give  better  service. 

While  the  employment  of  the  leeching  cesspool  in  the  manner 
described  above  is  the  common  method,  a  better  method  is  to  dis- 
charge the  house  drainage  into  a  tight  cesspool  and  connect  it  by 
overflow  into  a  second  cesspool  of  the  leeching  type,  the  first  retain- 
ing the  solids,  which  may  be  cleaned  out,  and  the  second  cesspool 
leeching  the  liquids  into  the  surrounding  soil.  The  water-tight  cess- 
pool should  ordinarily  be  about  six  feet  in  diameter  by  ten  feet  in 
depth,  and  is  usually  built  of  brick,  one  brick  thick,  laid  in  Portland 
concrete,  and  provided  with  a  24-in.  cast-iron  cover  and  frame.  A 
tight  cesspool  should  not  be  located  within  two  feet  of  any  boundary 
line,  or  within  ten  feet  of  any  house  or  rain-water  cistern,  or  within 
thirty  feet  of  any  source  of  water  supply.  A  leeching  cesspool  should 
not  be  located  within  100  feet  of  any  house  or  cistern,  or  within  300 
feet  of  any  source  of  water  supply. 

The  house  sewer  should  be  trapped  before  entering  a  cesspool, 
and  the  trap  provided  with  a  4-in.  fresh-air  inlet,  which  should  be 
governed  by  the  regular  limitations  surrounding  the  construction 
of  fresh-air  inlets.  The  cesspool,  whether  leeching  or  water-tight, 
should  be  vented  by  a  4-in.  vent  pipe,  carried  at  least  10  ft.  into  the 
air.     A  convenient  method  is  to  carry  this  vent  line  on  a  stout  pole 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    CESSPOOLS  295 

or  post,  set  for  the  purpose.  The  ground  above  the  cesspool  should 
be  banked  with  turf,  in  order  to  shed  surface  water  and  prevent  its 
entrance  into  the  cesspool. 

Rain  water  should  not  be  discharged  into  a  house  sewer  con- 
necting with  a  cesspool,  as  the  latter  will  be  flooded  and  called  upon 
to  take  care  of  drainage  which  is  not  harmful  to  discharge  upon  the 
surface  of  the  ground  if  properly  provided  for.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  leeching  and  water-tight  cesspool  each  has  its  own  particular 
advantages,  which,  in  the  main,  are  not  held  in  common. 

A  most  excellent  form  of  cesspool,  combining  the  features  of 
these  two  types,  is  the  combination  leeching  and  tight  cesspool  shown 
in  Plate  48,  the  construction  and  action  of  which  are  as  follows: 

An  excavation  of  proper  size  having  been  made,  a  heavy  layer 
of  broken  stone  is  filled  into  the  bottom,  and  upon  this  as  a  founda- 
tion a  common  brick,  water-tight  cesspool  is  built,  a  wide  space  being 
left  between  it  and  the  sides  of  the  excavation,  which  space  is  filled 
with  broken  stone.  Overflow  outlets  at  several  points  around  the 
cesspool,  and  exactly  on  the  same  level,  are  then  constructed,  which 
will  allow  liquids  to  pass  over  into  the  broken  stone  and  leech  into 
the  soil,  the  heavy  matter  remaining  in  the  water-tight  cesspool, 
from  which  it  may  be  removed  at  intervals.  This  form  of  cesspool 
takes  up  but  little  more  room  than  an  ordinary  cesspool,  is  as  efficient 
as  the  use  of  the  tight  cesspool  overflowing  into  a  leeching  cesspool, 
and  is  in  every  way  a  very  satisfactory  arrangement  for  handling 
the  drainage  of  a  country  house.  The  outlets  should  be  on  the  same 
level,  in  order  that  the  liquid  may  be  distributed  evenly  into  the 
broken  stone. 

If  these  outlets  are  not  placed  on  the  same  level,  the  lower  ones 
will  get  nearl}^  all  the  waste  from  the  cesspool,  and  that  part  of  the 
filtering  material  into  which  they  discharge  will  after  a  time  become 
filled  with  impurities,  and  thus  be  unfit  to  perform  the  duties  required 
of  it;  whereas,  if  each  outlet  is  made  to  take  care  of  its  proportional 
part  of  the  work,  the  cesspool  can  be  made  to  do  good  work  for  a 
much  longer  period. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  main  part  of  the  solid  matter  remains 
in  this  cesspool,  a  small  part  at  least  of  the  solids  is  carried  out  into 
the  broken  stone.  Instead  of  outlets  of  the  style  shown  in  Plate  48, 
very  good  outlets  may  be  obtained  by  using  half-S  lead  traps  in  an 
inverted  position. 


296  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

The  sewage  should  be  brought  into  the  cesspool  in  such  a  way 
that  its  contents  will  not  be  stirred  up  any  more  than  possible. 

If  the  contents  are  disturbed,  a  greater  amount  of  solid  matter 
will  be  carried  out  through  the  overflows.  By  carrying  the  inlet 
pipe  well  down  into  the  cesspool,  the  sewage  will  enter  with  less 
commotion  than  otherwise. 

While  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the  efficiencies  of  the 
several  types  of  cesspools,  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  this 
device  at  best  is  only  made  use  of  as  the  most  practicable  method  of 
solving  a  difficult  problem,  at  the  least  possible  expense.  In  other 
words,  the  cesspool  should  be  considered  only  as  a  necessary  evil,  to 
be  used  only  when  other  methods  cannot  be  employed. 

Cit}^  plumbing  ordinances  make  acknowledgment  of  this  fact  by 
prohibiting  the  use  of  cesspools  in  all  sections  of  the  city  that  are 
provided  with  public  sewage  facilities.  A  very  great  improvement 
over  the  cesspools,  as  shown  in  Plate  48,  is  to  be  found  in  the  sep- 
tic tank. 

This  subject  is  one  of  very  great  importance,  and  is  taken  up 
under  the  following  plate. 


Plate  XLIX 

CONSTRUCTION    AND    ACTION    OF    THE 
SEPTIC    TANK— UNDERGROUND    DIS- 
POSAL   OF    PARTIALLY    PURIFIED 
SEWAGE— AUTOMATIC  SEW- 
AGE   SIPHONS 


SepNc  Tank  <^ 


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^^-- [|lB^^~7^  IH.   CJzojTzTd'Er 


jQ)iy5c7cort7e 


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(Bver/u 


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Ml  I  M  I  I  I  lTl7> 


Je)e  e7a>  -(§e  al  <2Zr  ct/s) 


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CONSTRUCTION   AND    ACTION   OF   THE   SEPTIC   TANK 

As  stated  under  the  preceding  plate,  the  use  of  the  cesspool  is 
a  practice  to  be  followed  only  as  a  last  resort,  when  no  better  method 
can  be  employed.  At  best,  however,  the  cesspool  is  a  crude,  filthy 
affair,  although  in  times  past  it  has  served  an  important  purpose. 
The  use  of  the  septic  tank  is  to-day  leading  to  the  disuse  of  cess- 
pools, and  it  seems  to  be  only  a  matter  of  time  when  the  latter  will 
be  largely  a  thing  of  the  past. 

One  form  of  septic  tank  is  shown  in  Fig.  A,  Plate  49.  The 
house  sewage  is  discharged  into  the  first  of  the  three  compartments 
of  the  septic  tank,  this  compartment  being  commonly  known  as  the 
grit  chamber,  and  in  which  the  most  important  action  of  the  tank 
takes  place.  From  the  grit  chamber  the  liquid  portion  of  the  sewage 
overflows  into  the  second,  or  settling  chamber,  and  from  this  into 
the  third  or  discharge  chamber,  from  which  the  effluent  may  be  dis- 
posed of  in  a  number  of  different  ways,  which  will  be  considered  later. 

All  three  compartments  of  the  septic  tank  are  necessarily  water- 
tight, the  leeching  process  not  being  employed  in  connection  with  the 
septic  tank.  The  action  of  the  septic  tank  does  not  result  in  sepa- 
rating the  solids  from  the  liquids  by  mechanical  means,  the  action 
being  entirely  of  a  chemical  nature.  The  reduction  of  sewage  by 
means  of  the  septic  tank  is  by  the  action  of  certain  bacteria  which 
live  and  multiply  in  all  fresh  sewage.  By  means  of  this  bacterial 
action,  all  forms  of  organic  and  vegetable  matter  are  transformed 
from  solids  into  liquids  known  as  nitrates.  Ordinarily  this  action 
effects  the  change  from  solid  to  liquid  within  a  few  hours.  Even 
substances  of  such  hard  nature  as  bones,  leather,  etc.,  may  be  thus 
changed  in  form,  although  the  time  required  is  very  much  greater 
than  in  the  case  of  substances  of  softer  nature. 

The  septic  tank  is  made  generally  of  sufficient  size  to  hold  about 
a  day's  accumulation  of  sewage.  The  action  of  the  class  of  bacteria 
which  act  upon  sewage  requires  neither  light  nor  air;  in  fact,  both 
light  and  air  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  the  septic  tank.  A  cer- 
tain amount  of  warmth  must  be  maintained  in  order  to  provide  for 

299 


300  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

the  proper  action  of  the  bacteria,  although  no  special  arrangement 
to  provide  heat  is  necessary.  There  is  considerable  heat  present  in 
all  house  sewage,  and  the  sinking  of  the  tank  underground  provides 
an  additional  amount,  as  also  the  action  of  the  bacteria  itself.  To 
secure  the  best  results,  the  sewage  which  enters  the  septic  tank  should 
be  well  diluted. 

The  presence  of  a  supply  of  air  in  the  septic  tank  not  only  stops 
the  action  of  the  bacteria,  but  allows  the  contents  to  putrefy,  as  in 
the  use  of  the  cesspool.  Without  the  presence  of  air,  obnoxious  gases 
do  not  form,  and  therefore,  even  when  opened  for  a  short  time,  the 
septic  tank  does  not  throw  off  foul  odors  and  gases  in  any  amount. 

In  starting  a  septic  tank  there  is  nothing  to  be  done  of  a  special 
nature,  after  the  plant  has  been  made  ready,  beyond  the  admission 
of  sewage  to  it.  For  the  tank  to  reach  a  high  state  of  efficiency, 
however,  requires  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  elapse  for  the  bac- 
teria to  breed  and  form  in  sufficient  numbers.  This  period  varies 
with  conditions  that  are  present,  from  one  to  three  weeks.  On  the 
surface  of  the  sewage  standing  in  the  tank,  a  thick  coating  or  scum 
of  vegetable  and  animal  matter  soon  forms,  in  which  the  bacteria 
breed  and  perform  their  work  of  disintegration. 

Upon  the  under  side  of  this  scum  their  action  is  particularly 
strong,  the  solids  being  transformed  within  the  space  of  a  few  hours 
into  liquids,  which  are  in  the  form  of  ammonia  compounds. 

The  scum  on  the  surface  of  the  sewage  varies  greatly  in  thick- 
ness, but  is  sometimes  of  such  an  amount  and  so  compact  that  the 
weight  of  a  person  can  be  sustained  upon  it.  The  bacteria  also  form 
upon  the  sides  of  the  tank,  thus  attacking  the  sewage  from  every 
direction. 

The  numbers  of  these  bacteria  are  so  great  as  to  be  inconceiv- 
able, millions  of  them  being  present  in  a  very  small  volume  of  the 
sewage. 

In  order  that  the  best  results  may  be  obtained,  the  bacteria  should 
be  disturbed  as  little  as  possible.  They  adhere  to  almost  any  rough 
substance,  but  upon  glass  and  similar  surfaces  they  do  not  seem  to 
be  able  to  gain  a  hold.  Great  care  should  be  taken  against  break- 
ing or  disturbing  the  scum  in  any  way.  Therefore,  the  inlet,  as  it 
enters  the  grit  chamber,  should  discharge  through  a  bend  i.o  a  point 
well  below  the  surface  of  the  sewage,  as  shown  in  Fig.  A. 

Metallic  and  other  substances  upon  which  the  bacteria  c.re  unable 


THE    SEPTIC    TANK  301 

to  act,  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  grit  chamber,  which  should  be 
cleaned  out  occasionally,  and  for  this  purpose  each  chamber  of  the 
septic  tank  should  be  provided  with  a  24-in.  iron  cover,  fitting  tightly 
into  an  iron  frame  securely  embedded  in  the  masonry. 

From  the  grit  chamber  the  liquids  collecting  in  that  compartment 
overflow  into  the  settling  chamber.  This  overflow  should  be  so  con- 
structed as  to  transfer  the  liquids  with  the  slightest  possible  disturb- 
ance of  the  contents  of  the  settling  chamber.  The  method  of  over- 
flow shown  in  Fig.  A  is  a  good  one  to  follow,  as  it  allows  the  liquid 
to  trickle  over  as  it  collects.  The  process  of  disintegration  is  con- 
tinued in  the  settling  chamber,  although  to  a  much  less  extent  than 
in  the  grit  chamber,  for  the  reason  that  the  sewage  has  been  so  far 
purified  in  the  latter  that  there  is  not  the  substance  present  in  the 
settling  chamber  to  give  life  to  the  countless  numbers  of  bacteria  that 
exist  in  the  settling  chamber.  In  many  plants,  a  third  chamber  is 
added,  into  which  the  effluent  overflows  before  reaching  the  discharg- 
ing chamber,  the  septic  action  being  less  in  each  successive  chamber, 
owing  to  the  increasing  purity  of  the  liquids. 

From  the  last  settling  chamber  the  ef^uent  overflows  into  a  dis- 
charge chamber  usually,  although  in  some  cases  it  is  discharged 
directly  from  the  settling  chamber  to  the  final  place  of  disposal. 

A  great  factor  in  the  successful  operation  of  the  septic  tank  is 
the  formation  of  the  scum  on  the  surface  of  the  sewage.  This  scum 
not  only  provides  working  ground  for  the  bacteria,  but  aids  in  pre- 
venting the  penetration  of  light  and  air  when  the  cover  is  removed, 
and  holds  the  heat  contained  in  the  sewage  and  prevents  the  striking 
through  of  colder  air.  This  scum  sometimes  reaches  a  thickness  of 
over  a  foot  and  a  half.  After  the  efBuent  reaches  the  discharge 
chamber,  or  in  some  cases  the  last  settling  chamber,  the  method  of 
final  disposal  must  be  determined,  the  decision  being  made  with  due 
regard  to  the  existing  local  conditions.  If  a  running  stream  or 
ravine  is  convenient,  the  solution  is  often  easily  made  by  discharg- 
ing the  sewage  into  such  a  natural  disposing  medium  or  ground. 

When  the  effluent  reaches  the  discharge  chamber,  it  has  been 
purified  to  a  great  extent,  but  not  entirely,  and  unless  some  natural 
means  of  disposal,  such  as  a  stream,  is  at  hand,  it  is  necessary  to 
make  provision  for  the  carrying  on  of  this  final  purifying  process, 
which  is  commonly  known  as  filtration. 

A  method  quite  commonly  employed,  consists  in  discharging  the 


302  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

effluent  into  a  specially  prepared  trench  close  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  with  its  upper  face  open. 

For  ordinary  residences,  a  trench  1 8  to  20  ft.  in  length  and  3  or 
4  ft.  in  depth  should  be  sufficient,  the  trench  being  made  of  corre- 
spondingly larger  dimensions  when  greater  amounts  of  liquid  must 
be  cared  for.  At  the  bottom  of  the  trench  a  thick  layer  of  broken 
stone  should  be  filled  in,  and  above  this  a  layer  of  gravel.  Above 
the  gravel  a  layer  of  coarse  sand  is  sometimes  used.  Into  this  trench 
the  liquid  from  the  septic  tank  is  discharged,  and  provision  should  be 
made  for  distributing  it  as  evenly  over  the  filtering  bed  as  possible, 
in  order  that  no  one  part  of  the  trench  may  be  called  upon  to  per- 
form a  greater  amount  of  work  than  is  its  share.  If  too  large  an 
amount  of  liquid  is  delivered  at  one  point,  it  cannot  be  properly 
cared  for  by  the  filtering  material,  and  is  therefore  not  properly 
purified. 

This  form  of  disposal  is  sometimes  carried  further,  by  collecting 
the  water  filtered  through  the  trench  into  an  under  drain,  and  from 
this  pipe  discharging  it  into  a  second  filter.  Erom  the  second  filter 
the  water  may  be  pumped  out  onto  the  surface  instead  of  allowing 
it  to  leech  away  into  the  soil.  When  pumped  from  the  second  filter, 
the  sewage  which  entered  the  septic  tank,  has  been  transformed  into 
an  absolutely  pure  form.  That  this  is  true  may  be  seen  from  the 
fact  that  such  pump  water  has  in  some  instances  been  used  for 
drinking  purposes. 

Sometimes  the  liquid  discharged  from  the  discharge  tank  is 
deposited  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  filtration  and 
the  purifying  action  of  the  sun's  rays  complete  the  final  purifying 
operation. 

This  practice  is  not  generally  practicable,  however,  for  various 
obvious  reasons,  among  which  are  the  lack  of  sufficient  exposed  sur- 
face of  light  soil,  the  proximity  of  other  dwellings,  the  difficulty  of 
securing  an  even  distribution  over  the  surface,  etc. 

UNDERGROUND    DISPOSAL    OE    PARTIALLY    PURIEIED 

SEWAGE 

As  a  general  thing,  the  most  practicable  method  of  final  disposal 
of  partially  purified  sewage,  is  obtained  by  discharging  the  contents 
of  the  discharge  tank  into  an  underground  system  of  distributing 


UNDERGROUND    DISPOSAL    OF    SEWAGE  303 

pipes.  Such  a  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  B,  the  iUustration  showing 
a  plan  view  of  the  system. 

If  the  soil  is  light  and  porous,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  the  use 
of  this  method  of  disposal,  but  it  is  not  so  satisfactory  in  its  results 
when  used  in  other  soils. 

Good  judgment  should  be  used  in  determining  the  method  of 
providing  for  final  disposal  of  sewage.  In  the  case  of  a  moist  soil, 
which  is  unfit  for  filtering  purposes,  the  system  mentioned  above  may 
be  employed  to  advantage;  that  is,  by  the  use  of  filter  beds  placed 
underground,  the  final  filtered  product  being  pumped  out  onto  the 
surface.  The  underground  disposal  system,  irrespective  of  the  means 
of  discharging  the  contents  of  the  discharge  tank  into  it,  consists  of 
a  connection  from  the  discharge  tank  into  a  main  distributing  under- 
ground pipe,  from  which  a  number  of  branches  are  taken  out,  the 
object  of  the  piping  being  to  distribute  the  liquid  as  evenly  over  the 
area  used  for  disposal  purposes  as  possible.  These  branch  lines  of 
pipe  should  be  of  unglazed  earthenware,  laid  with  open  joints,  so 
that  through  them  the  liquids  may  escape.  These  pipes  may  be  laid 
in  any  way  to  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  distributing  area. 

Laterals  may  be  constructed  of  2-in.  pipe,  and  it  is  well  to  allow 
an  opening  of  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  at  each  joint. 

If  such  a  joint  is  unprotected,  sand  will  find  its  way  into  the 
pipe  and  gradually  choke  it  up.  Therefore  it  is  well  to  use  a  thimble 
or  collar  of  some  sort  to  cover  each  joint.  This  collar  may  be  a  short 
piece  of  earthen  pipe  of  a  larger  size  than  the  pipe  to  be  protected. 
Generally  the  branch  distributing  lines  should  be  laid  from  3^  to 
4  ft.  or  more  apart,  in  order  that  too  large  an  amount  of  liquid  may 
not  be  deposited  over  a  given  area. 

The  pipes  should  be  graded,  for  otherwise  the  liquid  will  escape 
in  larger  quantity  through  joints  nearer  the  main,  and  those  farthest 
from  it  will  have  comparatively  little  to  do.  If  the  soil  is  moist  or 
of  clay,  the  laterals  should  be  run  farther  apart  than  in  sandy  soils. 
Experience  shows  that  about  one  to  one  and  a  half  feet  of  porous, 
loose-jointed  tile  is  necessary  to  properly  handle  a  gallon  of  liquid, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  for  heavy  soils  a  greater 
length.  Therefore,  in  providing  underground  disposal  for  a  dis- 
charge tank  holding  500  gallons  of  liquid,  from  500  to  750  ft.  of 
2-in.  pipe  would  be  demanded  for  its  underground  disposal. 

In  grading  the  main  distributing  pipe,  as  well  as  the  laterals, 


304  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

there  is  one  point  that  should  be  guarded  against.  The  pitch  should 
be  very  gradual,  as,  if  much  pitch  is  given  them,  the  liquid  will  quickly 
flow  to  the  farthest  ends  of  the  main  and  laterals,  and  overburden 
such  areas,  while  not  giving  other  areas  a  sufficient  share. 

Common  fittings  should  not  be  used  in  connecting  the  laterals 
with  the  main,  as  the  branch  in  such  fittings  is  from  the  middle,  and 
this  would  not  allow  all  the  liquid  in  the  main  to  pass  into  the  laterals. 
Special  fittings  are  made  for  this  kind  of  work,  in  which  the  branch 
is  dropped  below  the  center  of  the  main  fitting,  sufficiently  to  allow 
all  liquid  in  the  main  to  escape  through  the  branch. 

Unless  these  fittings  are  used  on  the  main,  the  latter  should  be 
run  with  open  joints,  in  order  that  at  each  discharge  of  liquid  the 
entire  volume  may  be  able  to  escape  into  the  soil.  In  order  to  give 
perfect  results,  the  area  covered,  and  the  length  of  pipe  used,  should 
be  sufficient  to  thoroughly  dispose  of  one  discharge  of  liquid  before 
another  is  received. 

This  final  purifying  action  of  filtration  is  the  result  of  the  action 
of  a  class  of  bacteria  which  are  of  entirely  different  character  to 
those  which  do  such  eft'ective  work  in  the  purifying  process  that  goes 
on  in  the  septic  tank.  While  the  latter  operate  out  of  contact  with 
light  and  air,  the  action  of  the  bacteria  in  the  filtration  purifying 
process,  depends  entirely  on  the  presence  of  air  and  light. 

These  bacteria  exist  in  countless  numbers  in  the  air  spaces 
which  sand  and  other  porous  substances  contain,  their  existence  in 
such  materials  depending  on  the  fact  that  air  is  easily  admitted,  upon 
which  they  depend.  The  better  a  filtering  medium  is  for  its  purpose, 
the  more  porous  it  will  be  found  to  be.  As  air  is  admitted  more 
easily  to  the  soil  near  the  surface,  at  these  points  bacteria  will  be 
found  in  the  greatest  number,  and  as  greater  depths  are  reached,  the 
number  of  these  bacteria  rapidly  decreases  until  their  number  is  in- 
sufficient to  accomplish  satisfactory  work. 

Therefore,  the  nearer  the  surface  the  underground  distributing 
pipes  are  run,  the  greater  the  efficiency  of  the  system.  If  possible, 
these  pipes  should  be  laid  about  a  foot  from  the  surface.  Owing  to 
frost,  however,  they  must  generally  be  laid  deeper. 

If  areas  used  for  underground  disposal  are  turfed  over  it  will 
be  found  that  the  turf  will  afford  considerable  protection  against 
frost.  While  the  bacteria  in  the  septic  tank  change  the  complex 
forms  of  sewage  into  simple  chemical  compounds,  the  action  of  the 


AUTOMATIC    SEWAGE    SIPHONS  305 

bacteria  of  the  sand  again  changes  the  chemical  nature  of  the 
Hquid,  the  change  being  from  nitrites  into  nitrates,  and  resulting  in 
chemically  pure  water. 

When  first  passed  through  primary  or  contact  filter  beds  of 
broken  stone  and  gravel,  the  liquid  is  broken  up,  and  its  particles 
exposed  to  the  oxidizing  action  of  the  bacteria,  and  the  action  in  the 
sand  filter  is  similar,  although  more  thorough. 

The  entire  change  from  sewage  in  the  most  extreme  condition 
of  contamination  into  pure  water,  is  made  by  these  simple  processes, 
there  being  no  outlay  for  expensive  apparatus  of  any  kind,  or  any 
demand  for  outlay  in  running  expenses.  A  plant  constructed  on  these 
lines  may  be,  and  often  is,  used  for  the  reduction  of  the  entire  sew- 
age of  villages  and  small  towns,  which  could  otherwise  dispose  of  the 
public  sewage  only  with  great  difficulty,  and  doubtless  far  less  effi- 
ciently, and  with  much  greater  expense. 

The  same  system,  on  a  smaller  scale,  may  be  employed  for  a 
residence,  and  with  safety,  even  in  thickly  populated  districts,  for  all 
the  apparatus  may  be  located  underground,  and,  as  already  explained, 
its  nature  is  such  that  it  is  in  no  way  a  menace,  such  as  the  cesspool 
always  is. 

The  whole  plant  for  a  small  residence  may  usually  be  located  in 
a  back  yard  of  ordinary  size. 

While  in  many  locations  the  close  proximity  of  the  septic  tank 
to  the  house  is  not  objectionable,  in  the  use  of  it  in  cities  certain 
restrictions  are  advisable,  for  it  is  not  certain  that  it  will  receive 
proper  attention,  that  leakage  from  the  different  chambers  may  not 
occur,  etc. 

Therefore,  except  in  the  case  of  houses  surrounded  by  a  con- 
siderable extent  of  private  grounds,  it  should  not  be  used  in  thickly 
populated  districts  unless  unavoidable.  Its  use  in  such  places,  how- 
ever, is  not  often  called  for,  owing  to  the  presence  of  public  sewers. 


AUTOMATIC    SEWAGE    SIPHONS 

After  the  introduction  of  the  septic  tank  it  was  seen  that  ordi- 
nary methods  of  discharging  the  contents  were  not  desirable. 

For  instance,  in  the  employment  of  underground  systems  of  dis- 
posal, an  ordinary  constant  discharge  from  the  septic  tank  would 
give  poor  results,  as  the  liquid  entering  the  main  distributing  pipe 


3o6  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

would  be  of  such  small  amount  that  it  would  escape  through  the 
nearest  joints,  and  never  reach  those  farthest  away.  This  would 
result  in  giving  all  the  disposal  work  to  a  very  small  area,  an  amount 
greater  than  it  could  accomplish.  In  addition,  a  period  of  rest  fol- 
lowing a  period  of  work  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  supply  of  air 
to  the  bacteria  may  be  renewed.  To  solve  this  difficulty,  it  was  seen 
that  intermittent  discharges  of  the  full  contents  of  the  discharge 
chamber  were  necessary,  the  interval  between  successive  discharges 
being  a  number  of  hours  in  duration. 

The  automatic  sewage  siphon  is  the  device  employed  for  this 
purpose.  There  are  numerous  varieties  on  the  market,  depending 
for  their  action  on  more  or  less  similar  principles. 

In  Fig.  A  of  Plate  49,  a  very  desirable  form  of  sewage  siphon 
is  shown,  attached  to  the  outlet  end  of  the  discharge  chamber  of  a 
septic  tank.  Its  action  is  the  following,  depending  upon  the  confin- 
ing of  air  between  the  liquid  standing  in  the  outlet  of  the  siphon  and 
the  seal  of  the  large  trap:  As  the  liquid  rises  in  the  discharge  cham- 
ber, this  confined  air  becomes  constantly  more  compressed,  until  the 
pressure  is  great  enough  to  blow  the  water  out  of  the  blow-off  trap, 
thereby  relieving  the  air,  which  is  immediately  followed  by  a  heavy 
flow  of  water  from  the  discharge  chamber,  of  sufficient  volume  to 
quickly  fill  the  long  vertical  arm,  and  start  the  siphon  into  full  action, 
which  continues  until  air  enters  the  siphon  from  the  outlet  pipe 
through  the  air  pipe. 

Air  enters  the  air  pipe  only  when  the  siphon  has  drawn  the 
liquid  in  the  tank  so  low  that  the  siphon  does  not  fill  the  outlet.  A 
quick  passage  of  the  contents  of  the  discharge  chamber  into  the 
siphon  is  provided  for  by  enlarging  the  outlet  from  the  tank. 


Plate  L 

PNEUMATIC    SYSTEMS    OF    WATER   SUPPLY 

— HYDRAULIC    RAMS— PUMPS— WATER 

SUPPLY   BY    SIPHONAGE— PUMPING 

BY    WINDMILL— CAPACITY    OF 
TANKS—  PROTECTION      OF 
SUPPLY    PIPES     AGAINST 
FREEZING 


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PNEUMATIC    SYSTEMS    OF    WATER    SUPPLY 

In  considering  the  general  subject  of  country  plumbing  under 
a  previous  plate,  allusion  has  been  made  to  different  methods  of  pro- 
curing a  supply  of  water  for  use  in  the  country,  where  there  is  no 
system  of  public  supply.  In  addition  to  the  attic-tank  system,  which 
is  so  generally  used  to  supply  country  houses,  there  is  another  sys- 
tem, known  as  the  pneumatic  system  of  supply,  which  has  many 
advantages  over  the  old  method.  This  system  is  of  comparatively 
recent  introduction,  and  depends  in  its  operation  upon  compressed 
air.  The  use  of  this  system  is  dependent  only  on  the  ability  to  pro- 
cure a  generous  supply  of  water  from  a  well,  cistern,  spring,  or  other 
source  from  which  it  may  be  pumped.  A  very  important  feature  of 
this  system  is  the  fact  that  the  tank  may  be  located  anywhere,  either 
in  the  cellar,  stable,  underground,  or  at  any  other  point  where  there 
is  no  danger  of  frost. 

This  allows  a  pressure  to  be  maintained  on  the  water  piping, 
without  the  necessity  of  using  an  attic  tank,  with  all  its  attendant 
evils,  such  as  the  danger  of  leakage,  straining  of  timbers  under  its 
great  weight,  etc.  The  tank  is  of  wrought  iron  or  steel,  air  tight, 
and  is  generally  filled  by  a  power  pump,  pumping  engine,  or  wind- 
mill pump,  although,  excepting  as  a  matter  of  labor  and  convenience, 
it  may  be  filled  by  the  use  of  the  hand  pump. 

Either  a  vertical  or  horizontal  tank  may  be  used,  as  most  con- 
venient. 

There  are  several  systems  of  pneumatic  water  supply  on  the 
market,  the  principal  difference  being  in  the  methods  employed  in 
providing  for  the  admission  of  air  into  the  tank.  In  Plate  50, 
Eig.  A  represents  the  pneumatic  tank  located  in  the  cellar,  and 
Fig.  B  the  tank  located  underground.  The  latter  shows  the  use  of 
a  hand  pump,  and  the  former  shows  a  lift-force  pump  operated  by 
means  of  a  brake.  In  both  systems,  which,  by  the  way,  are  made 
by  different  manufacturers,  it  will  be  noted  that  both  the  force  pipe 
from  the  pump  and  the  supply  pipe  to  fixtures,  etc.,  connect  into  the 
bottom  of  the  tank.     A  check  valve  between  the  pump  and  the  tank 

309 


3IO  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

is  necessaiy,  to  hold  the  pressure  in  the  tank  when  the  pump  is  not 
in  operation. 

\Mien  the  pump  is  in  operation,  a  certain  amount  of  air  is 
pumped  into  the  tank  at  every  stroke,  through  a  special  form  of  auto- 
matic air  valve.  As  the  water  rises  in  the  tank,  the  air  becomes  more 
and  more  compressed,  and  when  the  tank  has  been  filled  about  two- 
thirds  full,  it  w^ill  be  found  that  the  air  pressure  is  sufficient  to  force 
the  water  to  any  height  ordinarily  desired.  In  connection  with  the 
tank  in  Fig.  A,  a  water  gauge,  seen  at  the  left,  serves  to  show  the 
height  of  water  in  the  tank,  and  a  pressure  gauge  shows  the  pressure 
which  the  water  is  under,  and  indicates  to  the  operator  at  the  pump, 
when  a  sufficient  pressure  has  been  reached. 

A  pressure  of  75  lbs.  may  be  reached  with  the  pneumatic  sys- 
tem, and  the  manufacturers  will  guarantee  a  pressure  of  50  lbs.  The 
latter  pressure  is  sufficient  to  raise  water  100  ft.,  and  as  20  lbs.  or  so 
is  sufficient  to  raise  it  to  the  third  floor  or  attic,  it  will  be  clear  that 
50  lbs.  is  ample  for  country  use  of  almost  any  character.  Manu- 
facturers also  guarantee  to  deliver  water  by  means  of  this  system 
through  horizontal  lines  of  pipe  a  mile  in  length. 

The  advantages  of  a  pneumatic  system  are  many.  It  not  only 
does  away  with  the  attic  tank,  but  allows  the  apparatus  to  be  located 
conveniently  to  the  pump,  where  it  may  be  watched  while  the  pump 
is  running;  the  danger  of  freezing,  common  to  elevated  tanks  placed 
out  of  doors,  is  avoided,  also  the  expense  of  erecting  towers  to  hold 
such  a  tank.  An  advantage  to  be  gained  in  placing  the  tank  under- 
ground, is  that  water  delivered  by  it,  is  very  nearly  of  a  uniform 
temperature  during  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  application  of  the 
pneumatic  system  of  water  supply  covers  a  wide  range,  for  it  may 
be  used  in  connection  with  a  farm,  for  instance  to  provide  a  supply 
of  water  not  only  to  the  house,  but  also  to  the  stables,  carriage  wash 
room,  milk  room,  and  may  be  used  for  lawn  and  garden  purposes 
and  in  case  of  fire.  The  latter  is  a  protection  which  country  houses 
have  always  been  sadly  in  need  of,  without  the  opportunity  of  filling 
the  need.  This  same  system  has  a  much  larger  application  in  sup- 
plying institutions,  factories,  and  even  entire  villages. 

If  the  demand  is  not  too  great,  one  large  tank  may  be  used. 
Otherwise  one  pump  working  continuously,  or  during  certain  periods, 
can  be  used  to  fill  as  many  tanks,  located  in  dififerent  houses,  as 
desired.    Eor  ordinary  house  use — that  is,  where  the  supply  is  to  be 


HYDRAULIC    RAMS       -  311 

used  only  for  household  purposes — a  tank  holdmg  400  or  500  gallons 
will  be  found  satisfactory.  Tanks  for  pneumatic  supply  purposes  are 
generally  tested  under  at  least  150  lbs.  pressure,  and  are  therefore 
strong  enough  to  produce  any  desired  pressure. 

The  pressure  produced  in  the  use  of  the  attic  tank,  however, 
is  simply  of  an  amount  dtie  to  its  height  above  the  level  at  which 
water  is  delivered. 

It  may  be  stated  that,  in  the  use  of  a  windmill  pumping  into  a 
pneumatic  tank,  a  regulating  cylinder  may  be  used,  which  will  stop 
the  action  of  the  windmill  whenever  any  given  pressure  in  the  tank 
is  reached. 


HYDRAULIC    RAMS 

The  use  of  the  h3'-draulic  ram  is  the  solution  of  many  an  other- 
wise difficult  problem  in  securing  a  supply  of  water  in  the  country. 
It  is  only  under  certain  conditions  that  the  ram  can  be  made  use  of, 
but  when  feasible  it  serves  a  valuable  purpose  without  further  cost 
than  that  of  installing  it. 

In  order  to  use  the  ram,  the  spring  or  other  source  of  supply 
must  be  situated  so  that  the  ram  may  be  located  below  it,  with  an 
opportunity  for  the  waste  water  from  the  ram  to  be  carried  away 
from  it.     Such  a  location  is  usually  to  be  fotmd  on  a  side  hill. 

The  operation  of  the  hydraulic  ram  is  based  on  the  following 
principle:  When  a  body  of  water  is  discharged  downward  through 
a  pipe  running  at  an  angle,  and  its  passage  out  of  the  end  of  the  pipe 
is  suddenly  stopped,  the  momentum  which  the  body  of  water  has 
gained,  will  force  a  part  of  the  water  to  a  much  higher  level  than 
that  of  the  water  before  it  passed  into  the  pipe.  The  connections  of 
the  hydraulic  ram  are  to  be  seen  in  Fig.  C  of  Plate  50. 

In  this  case  the  source  of  supply  for  the  ram  is  a  spring  located 
above  it,  as  necessarily  required.  The  water  enters  the  ram  from 
the  spring,  through  a  pipe  which  is  called  the  drive  pipe,  its  passage 
being  checked  by  the  waste  valve  when  it  attempts  to  escape.  The 
momentum  acquired  by  the  water  in  falling  through  the  drive  pipe, 
forces  whatever  water  is  not  lost  through  the  waste  valve,  up  into 
the  air  chamber,  compressing  the  air  in  the  latter.  A  check  valve 
at  the  entrance  to  the  air  chamber  prevents  any  escape  of  the  water 
in  a  backward  direction,  and  the  compressed  air  of  the  air  chamber 


312  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

forces  it  through  the  only  other  outlet,  that  is,  through  the  force  pipe, 
which  carries  it  to  the  point  of  delivery.  It  is  necessary  to  maintain 
a  supply  of  air  in  the  air  chamber  of  the  ram,  and  this  is  accom- 
plished by  an  air  valve,  which  admits  air  at  each  stroke,  at  a  point 
below  the  air  chamber. 

The  proper  operation  of  the  ram  depends  entirely  on  the  work- 
ing of  the  waste  valve.  When  this  valve  is  properly  arranged,  the 
action  of  the  ram  is  continuous  so  long  as  it  is  supplied  with  water. 
In  order  that  the  valve  shall  be  properly  arranged  to  be  self-acting, 
it  should  be  w^eighted  heavily  enough  to  overbalance  the  pressure 
against  its  lower  face.  When  a  volume  of  water  flows  down  the 
drive  pipe  from  the  spring,  its  weight  and  momentum  is  sufficient  to 
suddenly  close  the  waste  valve.  When  this  occurs  the  water  in  the 
drive  pipe  is  for  an  instant  without  motion,  and  the  force  against 
the  valve  face  is  not  great  enough  to  keep  it  closed. 

The  valve  therefore  opens,  the  water  in  the  drive  pipe  is  again 
set  moving,  and  in  seeking  to  escape  through  the  valve,  again  closes 
it.  This  alternate  opening  and  closing  of  the  waste  valve  thus  con- 
tinues without  intermission,  each  descent  of  the  water  through  the 
drive  pipe  forcing  water  up  into  the  air  chamber  and  thence  to  the 
point  at  which  it  is  to  be  delivered.  An  overflow  should  be  provided 
to  the  spring  or  whatever  source  of  supply  is  used,  in  order  that  the 
water  may  always  stand  at  the  same  height  above  the  waste  valve. 
If  otherwise,  the  weight  on  the  waste  valve  will  not  be  properly 
adjusted,  and  the  ram,  therefore,  not  self-acting. 

The  air  valve  is  an  important  feature  of  the  ram.  In  all  sup- 
ply work,  air  is  taken  up  mechanically  by  the  water,  and  all  air 
chambers  in  time  lose  their  air  by  this  means,  and  become  water- 
logged. 

This  would  be  a  serious  matter  in  the  use  of  the  hydraulic  ram, 
as  the  operation  of  the  weighted  waste  valve  without  an  air  chamber, 
would  cause  a  violent  shock  at  each  stroke,  which  would  be  felt 
throughout  the  supply  piping,  resulting  in  a  loud  cracking  and  rum- 
bling noise,  and  possibly  in  the  destruction  of  the  piping  as  well. 

The  air  enters  by  virtue  of  the  creation  of  a  partial  vacuum  at 
the  inner  face  of  the  valve,  which  allows  atmospheric  pressure  to 
open  the  valve  at  each  stroke  and  force  in  a  small  quantity  of  air, 
thus  renewing  any  loss  that  the  air  chamber  may  have  sustained. 

Rams  may  be  operated  with  a  difference  in  level  between  the 


HYDRAULIC    RAMS  313 

waste  valve  and  surface  of  the  source  of  supply  of  only  16  in., 
although  a  greater  difference  is  desirable  for  good  results.  It  is 
better  practice  to  use  a  fall  somewhat  greater  than  actually  required 
to  perform  the  work,  but  not  much  greater,  as  an  excessive  fall 
means  greater  momentum,  with  a  consequent  greater  wear  and  tear 
on  the  ram  and  piping.  Five  to  10  ft.  is  an  amount  of  fall  on  the 
drive  pipe  that  can  generally  be  depended  upon  for  good  work. 
Manufacturers  of  the  common  makes  of  hydraulic  rams  claim  that 
the  ram  will  deliver  approximately  one-seventh  of  the  water  entering 
the  ram,  to  a  height  approximately  five  times  the  difference  of  eleva- 
tion of  the  waste  valve  and  surface  of  the  spring,  and  to  a  height 
twenty  times  such  difference  in  elevation,  one-fourteenth  of  the  water 
entering  the  ram.  The  greater  the  height  through  which  the  water 
is  to  be  raised,  then,  the  greater  will  be  the  waste  of  water. 

This  waste  of  water  is  the  one  great  obstacle,  in  many  cases,  to 
the  use  of  the  ram,  as  it  generally  requires  a  considerable  supply 
to  operate  it.  Rams  or  hydraulic  engines  are  now  made,  for  which 
the  manufacturers  claim  a  much  higher  rate  of  efficiency  than  can 
be  obtained  in  the  use  of  the  common  ram.  While  the  action  of  the 
common  ram  depends  upon  the  opening  and  closing  of  a  heavily 
weighted  valve,  the  valve  in  the  modern  hydraulic  engine  is  made 
very  much  lighter,  its  opening  resulting  from  the  creation  of  a 
vacuum  below  the  valve,  and  the  weight  on  the  waste  valve  being  so 
regulated  that  the  latter  almost  balances.  This  results  in  the  rapid 
opening  and  closing  of  the  valve,  which  in  turn  results  in  a  quicker 
stroke.  These  and  other  improvements  guarantee,  as  claimed  by 
the  manufacturers,  30  ft.  of  elevation  of  the  water  in  the  delivery 
pipe  from  the  ram,  for  each  foot  that  the  water  descends  in  entering 
the  ram  from  the  source  of  supply.  This  result,  it  is  claimed,  is 
accomplished  with  much  less  waste  of  water.  The  modern  hydraulic 
engine  will  operate  tmder  any  fall  on  the  drive  pipe,  from  18  in.  to 
50  ft.,  will  force  water  to  a  height  of  500  ft.,  and  is  made  in  sizes 
capable  of  pumping  any  amount  of  water  up  to  1,000,000  gallons, 
during  twenty-four  hours. 

The  waste  water  should  be  carried  away  by  a  drain  as  fast  as 
it  collects  in  the  ram  pit,  for  if  not,  it  will  back  up  and  prevent  the 
operation  of  the  ram. 

The  drive  pipe  of  the  ram  should  be  about  twice  the  diameter 
of  the  force  pipe;  it  should  run  on  an  incline  without  other  bends 


314  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

than  the  one  necessary  to  carry  it  into  the  ram;  and  this  pipe  should 
be  air-tight.  The  end  of  the  drive  pipe  in  the  spring-,  should  be  sub- 
merged to  keep  out  air,  and  be  provided  with  a  strainer  to  prevent 
entrance  into  the  ram  of  foreign  substances,  as  the  lodgment  of 
such  substances  on  the  valve  may  prevent  its  proper  action. 

In  order  to  provide  an  unbroken  incline  of  the  drive  pipe  to  the 
ram,  when  it  is  impossible  to  do  so  in  the  ordinary  manner  without 
making  a  very  deep  excavation,  a  tank  or  stand  pipe  with  open  end 
may  be  placed  on  the  pipe  at  some  point  between  the  ram  and  the 
place  wdiere  it  is  necessary  to  bend  it,  such  tank  or  stand  pipe  being 
of  sufficient  height  to  allow  water  to  stand  in  it  at  the  same  level  as 
in  the  original  source  of  supply. 

A  form  of  ram  known  as  the  double-acting  ram  is  now  built, 
and  is  of  much  value  when  the  supply  of  pure  water  to  be  used  for 
water  supply  is  limited,  and  a  poorer  quality  of  water  is  also  at  hand. 
By  means  of  this  ram  the  poorer  water  supply  is  utilized  to  operate 
the  ram,  the  latter  delivering  to  the  house-supply  system  only  the 
pure  water.  The  ram  has  a  great  variety  of  applications  in  country 
work,  and  is  very  generally  in  use  not  only  for  private  supplies,  but 
for  supplying  institutions,  factories,  etc.,  and  even  on  public  supplies 
of  towns  and  villages. 


PUMPS 

The  simplest  form  of  pump  is  the  suction  pump,  and  this  is  the 
form  most  commonly  in  use.  Its  action  depends  upon  atmospheric 
pressure,  which  at  sea  level  is  approximately  15  lbs.  to  the  square 
inch,  and  therefore  capable  of  raising  water  to  a  height  somewhat 
over  33  ft.  in  a  perfect  vacuum. 

The  suction  pump  is  provided  with  an  upper  and  a  lower  box. 
When  the  pump  piston  moves  upward,  it  creates  a  more  or  less  per- 
fect vacuum  behind  it,  and  as  a  consequence  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure exerted  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  well,  forces  in  water 
to  fill  this  vacuum. 

When  the  piston  descends,  the  lower  box  closes  and  the  upper 
box  opens,  allowing  the  water  in  the  pump  to  pass  through  the 
upper  box  into  the  barrel  of  the  pump,  and  be  emptied  out  of  the 
spout  when  the  piston  is  next  raised.  By  means  of  the  suction  pump, 
water  can  never  be  raised  through  the  entire  theoretical  height  of 


PUMPS  315 

33  ft.,  as  a  perfect  vacuum  cannot  be  produced  in  the  pump,  and 
because  of  the  friction  of  the  water  in  passing  through  the  pipe. 

The  hft  pump  is  another  common  form  of  pump,  especially  use- 
ful in  driven  wells. 

The  barrel  of  this  pump,  and  the  lower  valve,  are  set  below  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the  well,  the  upward  stroke  of  the  piston 
lifting  the  water  without  the  help  of  atmospheric  pressure  as  in  the 
suction  pump. 

The  lower  cylinder  is  made  small  enough  to  fit  into  the  bore 
of  a  driven  well,  and  provided  at  its  lower  end  with  a  strainer. 

When  the  cylinder  is  not  of  sufficient  length  to  reach  into  the 
water,  a  suction  pipe  may  be  connected  to  it,  the  pump  then  deliver- 
ing water  both  by  suction  and  lifting. 

A  third  form  is  the  lift-force  pump.  It  has  the  same  upper 
and  lower  valves  that  the  suction  pump  has,  but  has  a  tight  top  pro- 
vided with  stuffing  box,  through  which  the  pump  rod  works.  At  a 
point  above  the  upper  box,  a  force  or  delivery  pipe  is  connected,  in 
which  is  a  check  valve.  As  the  water  is  raised  above  the  upper  box 
by  suction,  it  opens  the  check  valve  in  the  force  pipe,  and  passes  into 
it.  On  the  down  stroke  this  check  valve  is  closed  by  the  water  above 
it,  thus  allowing  the  force  pipe  to  hold  all  the  water  that  enters  it. 
These  pumps  are  always  provided  with  an  air  chamber  on  the  force 
pipe,  which  produces  a  steady  stream  instead  of  a  broken  one,  and 
also  prevents  any  strain  on  the  pump  and  piping. 

There  is  also  the  double-acting  force  pump,  which  delivers  water 
on  each  stroke,  whether  upward  or  downward.  This  is  a  modified 
form  of  the  common  force  pump,  contains  four  valves,  and  gives  a 
constant  stream,  which  is  very  desirable  for  fire  and  other  purposes. 

For  providing  a  large  supply  of  water  for  small  public-supply  sys- 
tems, for  factories,  institutions,  and  fire  purposes,  a  system  of  driven 
wells  may  be  used  to  great  advantage,  according  to  methods  similar 
to  the  following,  providing  such  supply  is  of  sufficient  amount. 
Below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  below  the  frost  line,  a  line  of 
main  pipe  is  laid,  from  the  middle  of  which  a  smaller  pipe  of  proper 
size  is  run  up  to  the  surface  and  connected  to  the  power  pump  as  a 
suction.  At  intervals  along  the  line  of  main  horizontal  pipe,  these 
intervals  depending  on  the  amount  of  the  supply  that  exists  under- 
ground, connections  are  taken  to  numerous  driven  pipes.  These 
pipes  connect  to  driven  wells  located  several  feet  from  the  main,  the 


3i6  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

entire  system  of  driven  wells  covering  sufficient  area  to  enable  the 
requisite  amount  of  water  to  be  obtained.  Generally  the  driven  wells 
are  sunk  at  irregular  depths.  Such  a  system,  operated  by  a  power 
pump  or  pumping  engine,  will  deliver  a  very  large  supply  of  water. 

A  few  remarks  on  driven  wells  may  be  of  value. 

When  water  has  been  struck,  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  much 
of  the  strainer  is  submerged,  to  find  which  information,  a  string  with 
a  small  weight  attached  may  be  let  down  into  the  drive  pipe,  and 
when  withdrawn,  the  length  that  has  been  wet,  noted.  If  the  strainer 
is  entirely  submerged,  the  water  should  be  tested,  and  if  found  of 
undesirable  quality  the  driving  should  continue  until  a  satisfactory 
supply  is  obtained.  An  old  pump  is  then  screwed  onto  the  drive  pipe 
and  operated  until  the  water  issuing  from  it  comes  clear  and  free 
of  sand.  The  strainer  on  the  drive  pipe  may  not  become  clogged 
for  a  period  of  twelve  or  fifteen  years,  or  possibly  longer.  When 
this  happens,  it  becomes  necessary  to  draw  out  the  old  pipe  and 
replace  the  old  strainer  with  a  new  one,  or,  if  unable  to  withdraw 
the  pipe,  to  drive  a  new  well. 

WATER  SUPPLY  BY  SIPHONAGE 

When  the  source  of  a  water  supply  is  at  a  higher  elevation  than 
the  point  at  which  the  water  is  to  be  delivered,  and  there  are  no 
intervening  obstructions  between  the  two  points,  the  supply  may  be 
delivered  by  gravity. 

When  there  is  a  hill  or  rise  of  land  between  the  source  and  the 
point  of  delivery,  however,  the  only  method  that  may  be  employed 
is  to  convey  the  water  by  means  of  siphonage. 

If  the  intervening  elevation  rises  above  the  source  to  a  height 
to  which  atmospheric  pressure  cannot  force  the  water,  the  siphon 
cannot  be  made  to  work.  Theoretically,  the  siphon  will  raise  water 
to  a  height  somewhat  above  33  ft.,  but  in  actual  practice,  owing  to 
friction  and  the  lack  of  an  absolutely  perfect  vacuum,  this  height 
cannot  be  reached  by  several  feet.  The  great  obstacle  to  obtaining 
a  supply  of  water  by  siphonage  is  the  accumulation  of  air  at  the  high 
point  or  points  on  the  supply  line.  This  trouble  may  be  remedied  by 
the  use  of  cocks  located  accessibly  at  the  high  points,  through  which 
to  vent  the  collections  of  air.  They  must  be  opened  frequently  in 
order  that  the  siphon  may  operate  properly,  and  such  constant  atten- 


WATER    SUPPLY    BY    SIPHONAGE  317 

tion  is  always  a  matter  of  inconvenience.  If  not  given  frequent 
attention,  however,  the  siphon  will  soon  cease  entirely  to  deliver 
water. 

There  is  comparatively  little  trouble  experienced  from  air-lock 
in  siphons  that  lift  water  through  distances  of  10  ft.  or  under,  and 
empty  it  at  a  point  low  enough  to  develop  a  strong  flow.  Under 
such  circumstances,  the  air  mixed  with  the  water  is  carried  along 
with  it.  In  the  case  of  lifts  much  greater  than  10  ft.,  however,  air 
begins  to  give  trouble,  the  trouble  increasing  rapidly  as  the  lift  is 
increased,  especially  when  the  crown  of  the  siphon  is  sharp  and  un- 
able to  contain  much  air.  Under  the  latter  conditions,  the  siphon 
will  cease  working  in  a  very  few  hours.  Another  method  sometimes 
employed  to  relieve  the  siphon  of  air,  is  the  placing  of  an  air  pump 
on  the  crown  of  the  siphon,  for  use  in  pumping  out  the  air  that  may 
have  collected.  The  interval  between  successive  operations  of  such 
a  pump  cannot  be  definitely  stated,  as  the  nature  of  the  water  some- 
times affects  this  matter,  as  well  as  the  height  through  which  the 
water  is  raised. 

There  is  still  another  method,  more  effective  than  either  of 
those  already  described,  which  may  be  applied  as  follows.  A  con- 
nection should  be  made  at  the  top  of  the  siphon  into  a  galvanized 
sheet-iron  tank  of  2  or  3  gallons  capacity.  Between  this  tank  and 
the  siphon  a  shut-off  is  located,  and  also  one  above  it,  a  funnel  being 
soldered  into  the  upper  end  of  it.  Close  the  lower  cock  and  open 
the  upper  one  to  allow  water  to  be  poured  in,  which  should  fill  the 
tank  and  the  funnel. 

If  the  upper  cock  is  then  closed  and  the  lower  one  opened,  the 
water  will  drive  out  the  air  in  the  siphon  and  maintain  the  siphon 
in  this  condition  until  the  tank  becomes  empty.  When  the  tank  has 
drained  out,  close  the  lower  cock,  open  the  upper  one,  and  refill  the 
tank.  Now  again  open  the  lower  cock  and  close  the  upper  one,  and 
the  tank  is  prepared  to  perform  its  work  as  a  receiver  for  the  air 
that  accumulates  at  the  crown  of  the  siphon. 

By  the  use  of  such  a  device  as  this,  the  siphon  may  be  kept  free 
of  air  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  The  larger  the  tank  used, 
the  longer  the  interval  between  the  successive  fillings.  Galvanized 
wrought-iron  pipe  and  galvanized  cast-iron  fittings  are  better  suited 
for  siphons  than  other  materials. 

The  use  of  cast  iron  with  caulked  lead  joints  for  large  siphons. 


3i8  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

is  very  poor  policy,  as  experience  shows  that  much  difficulty  is  expe- 
rienced in  keeping  it  air-tight,  a  very  essential  feature  in  the  proper 
operation  of  a  siphon. 

The  siphon  may  be  made  to  cover  a  very  wide  range  of  work, 
as  siphons  of  large  size  may  be  used  as  successfully  as  those  of 
smaller  size.  In  the  use  of  large-pipe  siphons,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  special  starting  apparatus  and  to  provide  for  constant 
attention  to  the  removal  of  air  at  all  high  points.  These  siphons  have 
been  made  to  carry  water  through  distances  of  many  miles.  The 
same  principle  is  successfully  applied  to  the  disposal  of  sewage  under 
similar  circumstances,  large  amounts  of  sewage  being  thus  handled. 


PUMPING    BY    WINDMILL 

The  following  suggestions  on  windmill  pumping  may  be  found 
of  value.  One  of  the  most  desirable  features  in  this  work  is  the 
efficiency  of  the  plant  in  light  winds.  A  pump  used  in  connection 
with  a  windmill  should  be  of  smaller  size  than  when  operated  by  hand. 

\Mien  water  is  pumped  by  hand,  a  pump  must  be  used  which 
will  perform  the  greatest  amount  of  work  in  the  shortest  time. 

The  requirements  are  different  in  the  use  of  windmills,  how- 
ever, for  generally  the  windmill  need  not  run  more  than  three  or 
four  hours  of  the  day  to  supply  the  tank  with  all  the  water  that  is 
necessary.  During  certain  seasons  of  the  year  there  are  many  days 
when  the  wind  is  very  light,  and  at  such  times  the  windmill  should 
work  under  as  light  a  load  as  possible  in  order  that  it  may  be  certain 
of  performing  some  work  continuously  under  such  adverse  condi- 
tions. Therefore  a  small  pump,  even  though  unable  to  furnish  more 
than  half  the  water  that  could  be  pumped  by  hand  during  a  given 
time,  will  prove  most  satisfactory. 

The  use  of  a  small  pump  will  allow  the  windmill  to  work  a 
greater  number  of  hours  during  light  winds,  and  will  be  found  to 
pump  more  water  during  the  entire  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day 
than  a  larger  pump  would. 

A  great  mistake  is  commonly  made  in  building  the  windmill 
tower  too  low.  It  should  be  of  such  height  that  the  wind  may  reach 
it  freely  and  without  being  interrupted  in  any  way.  Neighboring 
buildings,  trees,  hills,  etc.,  determine  the  height  at  which  it  should 


CAPACITY    OF    TANKS  319 

be  built.  If  such  obstructions  are  met  with,  the  tower  should  rise 
10  ft.  above  them. 

Another  point  to  be  considered  is  that  when  such  obstructions 
exist,  they  are  liable  during  high  winds  to  be  the  means  of  producing 
eddies  and  counter  currents,  which  result  harmfully  to  the  windmill. 
Moreover,  the  currents  of  air  at  elevations  farther  away  from  the 
ground  become  more  steady  and  uniform,  allowing  the  windmill  to 
work  more  efficiently  and  with  less  wear  and  tear.  For  the  reasons 
above  mentioned,  windmill  towers  should  ordinarily  be  constructed 
not  less  than  30  ft.  in  height,  and  of  sufficient  strength  and  firmness 
to  give  the  windmill  as  great  stability  and  freedom  from  vibration 
as  is  possible.  The  following  information  is  necessary  in  giving 
intelligent  data  concerning  the  selection  and  installation  of  a  wind- 
mill proper  for  the  work  required: 

The  character  of  the  well  and  its  depth  should  be  known — 
whether  it  is  a  driven,  drilled,  or  dug  well;  if  drilled,  the  inside 
diameter  of  the  casing  must  be  known;  the  height  and  distance 
through  which  water  is  required  to  be  raised,  these  dimensions  being 
taken  from  the  foot  of  the  pump  to  the  bottom  of  the  storage  tank. 

The  amount  of  water  entering  the  well  during  the  dry  seasons 
should  be  known,  also  the  size  of  tank  used,  and  the  amount  of 
water  required  for  an  entire  day's  use,  and  the  height  necessary 
to  construct  the  windmill  tower  to  provide  free  access  of  wind  to 
the  windmill. 


CAPACITY    OF   TANKS 

In  connection  with  windmills,  rams,  etc.,  which  pump  to  storage 
tanks,  it  is  often  required  to  estimate  the  dimensions  of  tanks  to  hold 
certain  amounts  of  water,  or  to  find  how  many  gallons  are  held  by 
tanks  of  certain  dimensions. 

These  tanks  are  generally  either  rectangular  or  cylindrical  in 
shape.  In  either  case  the  cubic  contents  of  the  tank  in  cubic  inches, 
divided  by  231,  will  show  the  number  of  gallons  which  the  tank  is 
capable  of  holding,  231  representing  the  number  of  cubic  inches  in 
a  gallon.  If  the  dimensions  of  the  tank  are  in  feet,  the  capacity  may 
be  found  by  multiplying  the  cubic  feet  of  contents  of  the  tank  by 
7.476,  this  quantity  representing  the  number  of  gallons  in  a  cubic  foot. 


320  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

The  following  rules  will  give  the  capacity  in  gallons  of  rectan- 
gular and  cylindrical  tanks. 

To  find  the  capacity  of  a  rectangular  tank :  Multiply  the  internal 
length,  breadth,  and  depth  in  feet  together,  and  multiply  this  result 
by  7.476.  Or  multiply  together  the  three  interior  dimensions  in 
inches  and  divide  the  result  by  231. 

To  find  the  capacity  of  a  cylindrical  tank:  Multiply  the  square 
of  half  the  interior  diameter  in  feet  by  3.1416,  multiply  this  result  by 
the  depth  in  feet,  and  this  result  by  7.476.  Or  multiply  the  square 
of  half  the  interior  diameter  in  inches  by  3.1416,  then  multiply  this 
result  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  this  result  by  231. 

If  a  tapering  cylindrical  tank  is  used,  add  the  large  and  small 
diameters  together,  and  find  half  this  amount.  This  will  give  the 
average  diameter,  and  the  contents  may  then  be  found  by  the  regular 
rule  for  cylindrical  tanks. 

Thus,  the  capacity  of  a  rectangular  tank  measuring  4X5X6 
ft.  will  be  found  in  the  following  manner: 

4  X  5  X  6  X  7476  =  897  gallons, 


or 


(48  X  60  X  72)  ^  231  =  897 


The  capacity  of  a  cylindrical  tank  5  ft.  in  diameter  and  6  ft. 
deep  will  be  found  as  follows : 

2.5  X  2.5  X  3-1416  X  6  X  7A7^  =  881  gallons, 
or 

(30  X  30X  3-1416  X  72)^231  =881 

The  capacity  of  a  cylindrical  tank  tapering  from  5  ft.  in  diameter 
at  the  bottom  to  3  ft.  in  diameter  at  the  top,  and  5  ft.  deep,  will  be 
found  as  follows: 

(5  +  3)"^2  =  4  ft.  =  average  diameter, 

2  X  2  X  3-1416  X  5  X  7-476  =  470  gallons, 
or 

24  X  24  X  3-1416  X  60-^231  =470 


PROTECTION    OF    SUPPLY    PIPES  321 

PROTECTION    OF    SUPPLY    PIPES    AGAINST    FREEZING 

Many  attempts  along  various  lines  have  been  made  to  solve  the 
question  of  protection  of  water  pipes  against  freezing,  with  greater 
or  less  satisfactory  results. 

In  some  cases  the  covering  of  supply  pipes  with  prepared  cov- 
ering, such  as  used  in  steam  and  hot-water  heating,  is  effectual, 
although  its  use  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  might  be  supposed.  If  the 
pipe  is  exposed  to  extreme  cold,  as  would  be  the  case  if  run  in  an 
unprotected  place  out  of  doors,  there  is  possibly  no  more  effective 
protection  than  that  afforded  by  the  following: 

Around  the  pipe,  and  about  one  inch  from  it,  build  a  wooden 
box  of  the  length  of  the  exposed  section,  and  outside  this  box  con- 
struct a  second  box,  with  an  inch  air  space  between  the  two.  Four 
or  five  of  these  boxes  will  aff'ord  ample  protection  for  a  pipe,  although 
more  of  them  can  be  used  to  great  advantage  if  the  exposure  is 
extreme. 

The  boxing  may  be  of  rough  boarding  if  it  is  desired  to  save 
expense.  It  is  not  the  boarding  that  affords  the  protection  to  the 
pipe  so  much  as  the  air  confined  between  the  several  boxes. 

Pipes  laid  at  the  bottom  of  streams  are  generally  well  protected, 
and  also  when  laid  in  turfed  ground  they  are  very  much  better  pro- 
tected than  when  laid  in  uncovered  ground.  Another  method  that  is 
often  effective  is  to  lay  the  pipe  in  trenches  surrounded  with  hot 
horse  manure.  The  heat  of  the  manure  will  keep  the  frost  from 
affecting  the  piping.  The  same  method  may  be  followed  above 
ground  by  running  the  pipe  in  a  box  filled  with  manure. 

The  manure  must  be  renewed  usually  each  year,  however,  as  it 
loses  its  strength  in  that  time,  then  affording  no  protection.  Saw- 
dust cannot  usually  be  depended  upon  as  a  protection  for  piping,  as 
it  absorbs  moisture. 

Hair  felt  closely  packed  about  an  exposed  pipe  acts  as  a  strong 
protection.  The  latter  material  is  of  special  value  in  pipes  inside 
the  house  when  passing  through  partitions  or  floors,  the  spaces  be- 
tween which  are  cold. 


Plate  LI 

WATER    SUPPLY    FOR    COUNTRY    HOUSE 
DOUBLE-ACTING     RAM— CISTERN 
FILTERS— HOT-WATER    SUPPLY 


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WATER    SUPPLY    FOR    COUNTRY    HOUSE 

In  the  foregoing  pages  reference  has  been  made  to  several  of 
the  features  shown  in  Plate  51.  This  illustration  gives  a  general 
system  of  supply,  showing  several  details  of  value. 


DOUBLE-ACTING    RAM 

The  double-acting  ram  is  of  very  great  value  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances ;  for  instance,  when  a  limited  supply  of  pure  spring  water 
is  obtainable,  but  in  too  small  quantity  to  operate  the  ram  continu- 
ously. Under  these  conditions,  any  other  water  supply  of  inferior 
quality  from  a  pond,  lake,  or  stream  properly  located  may  be  em- 
ployed to  operate  the  ram,  its  arrangement  and  connections  being 
such  that  nothing  but  the  pure  water  supply  will  be  pumped.  This 
machine  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin  and  is  very  effective 

CISTERN    FILTERS 

One  of  the  chief  features  of  Plate  51  is  the  work  in  connection 
with  the  cistern. 

The  collection  and  storage  of  rain  water  is  very  necessary  as  a 
means  of  providing  a  supply  of  soft  water  when  the  natural  water 
supply  is  hard.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
use  rain  water  for  drinking  purposes. 

The  storage  of  drinking  water  in  tanks  and  cisterns  is  not  advis- 
able if  better  methods  can  be  employed,  but  is  sometimes  necessar}^, 
and  when  this  is  the  case  too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  pro- 
viding the  best  possible  conditions.  To  place  the  water  coming  from 
the  roof  in  proper  condition  for  drinking  purposes  it  is  necessary  to 
filter  it. 

If  rain  water  could  be  stored  without  taking  up  any  impurities, 
it  would  be  the  purest  water  supply  that  could  be  obtained,  but  in 
falling  upon  the  roof  it  not  only  carries  with  it  such  things  as  twigs, 
pieces  of  slate,  etc.,  but  also  things  which  are  much  worse,  such  as 
decaying  vegetable  matter,  bird  manure,  and  dust  and  dirt  which 
contain  all  kinds  of  impurities. 

325 


326  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

These  things  not  only  make  the  water  impure,  but  discolor  it 
to  some  extent,  and  cause  it  to  give  out  foul  odors. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  before  being  pumped  from  the  cistern 
into  the  house  tank  the  water  should  be  purified,  and  filtration  is  the 
easiest  and  most  practicable  way  of  performing  the  work.  There 
are  many  forms  of  cistern  filters. 

A  simple  form  of  filter  may  be  built  in  the  following  manner. 
Only  a  small  part  of  the  cistern  is  needed  for  the  filter  chamber, 
which  should  be  of  brick,  extending  from  the  wall  about  two  feet 
into  the  cistern.  It  is  practically  a  brick  box  built  up  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cistern  about  two  or  three  feet,  the  top  of  the  box  also 
being  bricked  over.  The  bottom  of  this  brick  box  should  have  a 
thick  covering  of  gravel  or  broken  stone  and  charcoal.  Narrow  open- 
ings should  be  provided  at  the  bottom  of  the  brick  box  at  different 
points  around  it  in  order  to  allow  the  water  of  the  cistern  to  pass 
through  into  the  filter,  and  at  these  openings  coarse  wire  cloth  should 
be  used  to  prevent  the  gravel  and  charcoal  from  working  out.  The 
top  surface  of  the  filtering  material  should  also  be  protected  in  the 
same  manner. 

The  brick  box  should  not  be  covered  with  any  coating  to  make 
it  w^ater-tight. 

The  suction  pipe  of  the  pump  should  end  inside  the  filter  box, 
resting  firmly  above  the  filtering  material.  It  is  also  well  to  provide 
an  air  pipe  of  3^-  or  ^-in.  pipe,  connecting  into  the  filtering  chamber 
and  ending  above  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  cistern.  The  cis- 
tern water  will  filter  through  the  filtering  material  and  also  through 
the  bricks  of  the  filter  chamber,  and  when  pumped  from  the  latter  to 
the  house  tank  will  be  entirely  suitable  for  drinking  purposes.  Porous 
stone  and  brick,  by  the  way,  make  excellent  filtering  materials,  as 
they  are  filled  with  minute  air  spaces,  which  is  a  necessary  feature 
in  any  material  that  is  to  be  used  for  filtering  purposes.  After  hav- 
ing been  in  use  for  two  or  three  years  the  filter  chamber  should  be 
torn  out,  the  filtering  material  renewed,  and  the  bricks  thoroughly 
cleaned  before  being  used  again,  or  new  ones  used,  which  would  be 
better,  as  the  pores  of  the  bricks  will  have  become  more  or  less  filled 
in  this  length  of  time.  If  the  old  bricks  are  to  be  used  again,  it  will 
be  a  good  plan  to  bake  them,  thus  destroying  any  impurities  that  may 
exist  in  them. 

While  the  filtering  arrangement  just  described  is  efficient  and 


CISTERN    FILTERS  327 

satisfactory,  it  is  an  excellent  idea  in  such  work  as  this  to  prevent  as 
far  as  possible  the  entrance  of  impurities  into  the  cistern  in  the  first 
place,  and  to  filter  the  water  also  in  some  manner  similar  to  the 
method  described. 

A  sort  of  catch  basin,  such  as  shown  in  Plate  51,  three  or  four 
feet  in  each  of  its  three  dimensions,  or  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter 
and  of  about  the  same  depth,  if  built  in  cylindrical  form,  may  be  used 
to  hold  back  from  the  cistern  much  of  the  coarser  substances,  and 
thus  prevent  the  cistern  filter  from  becoming  so  quickly  clogged. 

This  catch  basin  ma}^  be  built  against  the  cistern  or  separate 
from  it,  its  top  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  provided 
with  a  removable  cover.  A  cast-iron  grating  should  cover  the  full 
area  of  the  catch  basin,  and  be  set  securely  a  few  inches  from  the 
bottom  of  it.  Above  the  grating,  and  reaching  nearly  to  the  top  of 
the  catch  basin,  gravel  or  broken  stone  should  be  filled  in,  and  from 
the  upper  part  of  this  material  an  outlet  of  the  same  size  as  the  con- 
ductor pipe  is  carried  into  the  cistern.  The  conductor  pipe  from  the 
roof  is  carried  into  the  catch  basin  to  a  point  below  the  iron  grating. 
Therefore,  to  reach  the  cistern,  all  rain  water  must  pass  through  the 
broken  stone  or  gravel,  which  is  easily  renewed  when  necessary.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  catch  basin  should  be  used  only  as 
an  aid  to  the  cistern  filter. 

Another  very  good  and  simple  form  of  cistern  filter  can  be  con- 
structed as  shown  in  Plate  51. 

In  the  center  of  the  cistern  several  lengths  of  large-size  porous 
tile  should  be  securely  joined  together,  the  bottom  being  cemented 
to  the  bottom  of  the  cistern.  The  tile  should  be  completely  filled  with 
broken  stone  and  charcoal,  and  the  suction  pipe  of  the  pump  con- 
nected to  the  top.  At  the  bottom  of  the  tile,  holes  should  be  drilled 
through  it  in  sufficient  number  to  allow  water  to  pass  into  the  filter- 
ing material.  The  cistern  water  also  filters  through  the  tile.  The 
connection  of  the  suction  pipe  into  the  filter  should  be  so  made  that 
it  cannot  break  the  tiling  or  the  cement  joints,  and  thus  destroy  its 
effectiveness  by  allowing  unfiltered  water  to  be  pumped. 

If  desirable,  this  same  filter  may  be  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  cis- 
tern, with  the  filtering  holes  in  the  end  opposite  the  suction-pipe 
connection. 

In  Plate  51  the  filtered  cistern  water  is  pumped  into  the 
attic   storage   tank,    and    an    overflow   from    the   latter    run   to    the 


328  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

cistern.  From  the  cistern  an  overflow  is  run  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

It  is  necessary  ahvays  to  provide  an  unfaiHng  supply  of  water, 
and  the  use  of  the  double-acting  ram,  together  with  the  use  of  rain 
water,  present  means  of  doing  this.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  cistern 
water  at  the  pump,  a  faucet  devised  for  this  purpose  may  be  attached 
to  the  pump  at  the  bottom  of  the  air  chamber. 

In  the  use  of  tanks  for  rain-water  storage,  it  is  better  to  use  tin- 
lined  sheet  copper  for  the  lining  than  sheet  lead,  as  rain  water  will 
often  attack  lead.  It  is  a  fact  that  a  pure  water  will  more  often 
attack  metals  than  a  water  containing  a  large  amount  of  impurities. 

HOT-WATER    SUPPLY 

In  connection  with  the  supply  work  shown  in  Plate  51  there  is 
also  shown  a  system  of  hot-water  supply,  in  which  the  kitchen-range 
boiler  is  heated  both  by  the  kitchen  range  and  by  a  coil  in  the  fur- 
nace. This  is  a  very  common  practice  not  only  in  country  work,  but 
in  the  city  also.  Very  often  a  small  bath-room  radiator  may  be 
heated  from  the  hot-water  supply. 

The  hot-water  supply  system  is  represented  by  the  single  heavy 
lines.  There  are  several  methods  of  heating  a  range  boiler  from  the 
kitchen  range  and  another  heating  source  below  it,  and  the  method 
shown  is  probably  the  most  satisfactory.  It  will  be  noted  that  in  this 
method  the  course  of  the  circulation  of  hot  water  is  continuous,  the 
hot  water  from  the  furnace  passing  through  the  range  water-front, 
thence  to  the  boiler  and  to  the  fixtures,  and,  when  it  has  cooled, 
returning  to  the  furnace  coil.  Two  lines  of  circulation  are  shown, 
each  being  brought  together  on  the  return. 

The  use  of  circulating  pipes,  if  properly  installed,  insures  a  con- 
stant supply  of  hot  water  close  to  the  fixtures  supplied,  and  naturally 
obviates  the  necessity  of  drawing  off  a  long  line  of  cold  water  before 
the  water  will  run  hot,  as  must  be  done  in  work  unprovided  with 
circulation. 

This  saving  in  the  use  of  water  is  a  matter  of  importance  wher- 
ever water  is  metered  or  limited  in  amount. 

Whenever  the  house  supply  is  from  an  attic  tank  the  hot-water 
supply  must  be  under  tank  pressure,  in  the  use  of  which  system  an 
expansion  pipe  is  necessary. 


Plate  LII 

THAWING    UNDERGROUND     WATER    PIPES 
BY    ELECTRICITY 


Slec/rzc 


c5ecojzd(7T^ 


t 


V>.-'t  ••'':.>  ^^. 


•r  .. 


^ 


— 



-p 

1 

rT' 

r 

- 

-«i 

— 

— 

— 

- 

- 

- 



—     

-. 

THAWING   UNDERGROUND    WATER    PIPES    BY 

ELECTRICITY 

A  SUCCESSION  of  severe  winters  has  had  the  result  of  estabhsh- 
ing  the  practice  of  thawing  frozen  water  mains  and  service  pipes  by 
means  of  electricity.  In  some  sections  during  the  winter  of  1903-4 
water  mains  7  ft.  underground  were  frozen,  and  the  old  method  of 
digging  up  the  frozen  ground  to  expose  the  affected  pipe  was  found 
to  be  a  matter  of  great  expense,  especially  as  several  thousands  of 
freeze-ups  occurred  in  some  of  the  large  cities. 

The  principle  upon  which  this  method  works  is  the  fact  that  an 
electric  current,  in  passing  through  a  conductor  which  offers  consid- 
erable resistance  to  its  passage,  develops  a  great  amount  of  heat 
in  the  conducting  material. 

In  passing  an  electric  current  through  a  frozen  water  pipe  there 
is  sufficient  resistance  encountered  to  generate  the  heat  necessary  to 
thaw  the  pipe.  The  ice  itself  offers  great  resistance,  it  being  a  poor 
conductor,  while  the  pipe,  especially  at  its  joints,  offers  a  consider- 
able amount  also.  With  this  principle  to  work  upon,  the  thawing  of 
pipes  may  be  accomplished  if  the  means  are  at  hand  for  providing 
a  large  enough  current,  in  this  work  the  securing  of  a  large  amount 
of  current  being  of  most  importance,  just  as  in  the  use  of  water  for 
some  purposes,  the  volume  which  may  be  obtained  is  of  greater  im- 
portance than  the  pressure  which  it  is  under. 

Many  different  and  successful  methods  have  been  made  use  of 
in  supplying  the  electric  surrent.  In  sizable  towns  and  in  cities,  the 
most  convenient  source  of  electricity  for  this  work  has  been  the 
electric-lighting  mains,  most  of  which  are  now  alternating  circuits. 

In  employing  alternating  currents  it  is  necessary  to  use  what  is 
known  as  a  step-down  transformer.  Such  a  device  consists  essentially 
of  two  coils  of  wire  adjacent  to  each  other,  but  not  connected  together 
in  any  way.  The  ends  of  the  primary  coil  are  connected  to  the  light- 
ing mains,  and  the  passage  of  the  current  through  this  coil  induces 
a  current  in  the  secondary  coil.  The  step-down  transformer  takes  a 
current  from  the  mains  at  a  high  voltage  or  pressure  and  delivers 
it  through  the  secondary  coil  under  a  much  lower  voltage. 

331 


332  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

Currents  under  various  voltages,  up  to  several  thousand  in 
amount,  have  been  used  on  the  primary  and  transformed  generally 
to  about  50  volts  on  the  secondary. 

An  electric  circuit  is  made  up  of  three  factors — current  in 
amperes,  voltage,  and  resistance.  As  the  resistance  increases,  the 
amount  of  current  decreases,  and  vice  versa. 

The  thawing  apparatus  is  generally  placed  upon  a  wagon  or 
sled,  and  consists  principally  of  the  transformer  and  what  is  known 
as  a  water  resistance.  The  latter  is  usually  in  the  form  of  a  small 
barrel  filled  with  salted  water,  in  which  two  copper  plates  are  im- 
mersed, each  being  connected  to  a  wire. 

After  this  apparatus  has  been  taken  to  the  place  where  the 
thawing  is  to  be  done,  the  primary  leads  are  connected  to  the  electric- 
light  mains,  proper  fuses  and  an  ammeter  for  measuring  the  current 
being  provided. 

The  secondary  leads  or  connections  are  then  attached  at  either 
end  of  the  frozen  section,  and  the  water  resistance  placed  at  any 
point  in  the  secondary  circuit,  with  the  copper  plates  far  apart. 
When  in  this  position  the  resistance  is  great,  and  the  amount  of  cur- 
rent small.  When  it  is  seen  that  a  larger  amount  of  current  is 
necessary,  it  may  be  obtained  by  reducing  the  resistance,  that  is,  by 
moving  the  plates  closer  together.  Various  amounts  of  current  are 
required,  depending  on  the  conditions  of  each  individual  piece  of 
work.  For  service  pipes,  which  are  naturally  more  often  affected 
than  the  mains,  currents  of  an  amount  between  200  and  300  amperes 
are  generally  used. 

Long  leads  are  used  on  this  work,  and  when  possible  the  con- 
nection may  be  made  most  easily  by  attaching  one  of  the  secondary 
leads  to  the  nearest  hydrant,  and  the  other  to  a  faucet  or  to  the 
piping  inside  the  house,  the  current  thus  being  allowed  to  pass 
through  the  frozen  section.  Attention  should  be  given  to  making 
as  good  connections  to  the  hydrant  and  faucet  as  possible,  as  a  poor 
contact  at  either  place  may  result  in  burning  the  metal. 

AVhen  there  is  no  hydrant  conveniently  located,  connection  may 
be  made  to  the  piping  of  an  adjacent  house,  and  if  the  latter  is  too 
far  distant  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  dig  down  to  the  pipe 
to  make  the  connection. 

When  the  service  pipes  of  two  or  more  adjacent  houses  are  to 
be  thawed,  the  several  water  services  may  be  connected  in  series, 


THAWING    UNDERGROUND    WATER    PIPES        333 

and  a  single  application  of  the  current  answer  for  thawing  all  of 
them. 

By  tising  long  secondary  leads,  frozen  service  pipes  of  several 
houses  may  often  be  thawed  without  changing  the  primary  connec- 
tions to  the  lighting  mains. 

So  universal  has  the  practice  become  of  thawing  frozen  mains 
and  service  pipes  by  electricity,  that  apparatus  designed  especially 
for  such  work  may  now  be  procured  of  manufacturers  of  electrical 
apparatus. 

In  some  cases,  where  it  was  impossible  to  use  lighting  or  power 
circuits,  portable  outfits  have  been  used  in  this  work,  consisting  of 
a  steam  or  gas  engine  connected  to  an  electric  generator.  Storage 
batteries  have  also  been  made  use  of.  The  time  used  in  thawing  pipes 
depends  so  largely  on  conditions,  size  of  pipe,  length  of  frozen  sec- 
tion, amount  of  current  available,  etc.,  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  any 
estimate  of  it.  Under  favorable  conditions,  however,  service  pipes 
of  dififerent  sizes  have  been  thawed  out  in  from  ten  to  twenty  min- 
utes, and  long  lines  of  water  mains,  as  large  as  10  in.  in  size,  in  two 
or  three  hours. 

The  plumber,  being  ordinarily  unacquainted  with  electrical  work, 
should  always  seek  the  advice  or  the  services  of  competent  electricians 
before  attempting  this  class  of  work,  as  errors  in  connections  on  his 
part  might  result  seriously. 

The  workman  inexperienced  in  electrical  work  might  easily 
make  a  mistake  which  would  not  only  result  in  considerable  dam- 
age to  apparatus,  but  which  might  also  affect  the  lighting  circuit  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  render  it  useless  until  repaired.  In  addition, 
there  is  the  danger  of  serious  or  fatal  injury  to  the  workman. 

The  matter  of  caring  for  frozen  mains  and  services  has  in  many 
cities  been  taken  over  by  the  city  water  department,  the  thawing 
operations  being  performed  by  them,  in  combination  with  the  electric- 
lighting  companies.  This  would  appear  to  be  by  far  the  best  method 
under  the  circumstances. 


Plate  LIII 

DOUBLE    BOILERS 


D  oub/e 


PJatz  53. 


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E 


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jQ)2yS/2^2/hzz/22ZO  «?     d^  ^ 


■fr'=>J7Z    ^ZZ2lrzp    '=2' 

'^J^<7/-e2-  j:.2j^F 


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J^2-<='2z/  Heoaei- 


JBro2zch 

J&2^2JD  Jq)2-2JOS 


J^2-cr:^~  '?/y 


DOUBLE    BOILERS 

While  the  principle  of  the  double  boiler  is  simple  and  its  con- 
nections straightforward,  there  are  comparatively  few  who  under- 
stand the  manner  in  which  it  should  be  installed.  The  double  boiler 
is  used  in  city  buildings  of  such  height  that  the  water  under  city 
pressure  will  not  at  all  times  reach  the  upper  floors. 

It  consists  of  two  boilers,  one  inside  the  other,  the  outer  boiler 
being  connected  in  the  usual  manner  with  the  heater,  and  the  inner 
boiler  receiving  its  heat  from  the  hot  water  in  the  boiler  which 
surrounds  it. 

This  form  of  boiler  is  much  used  in  large  residences,  and  often 
in  apartment  buildings. 

In  most  of  the  largest  buildings,  however,  where  very  large 
amounts  of  hot  water  are  required,  the  water  is  pumped  into  the 
house  tank,  and  the  entire  hot-water  supply  for  the  building  deliv- 
ered under  tank  pressure. 

The  outer  boiler  is  supplied  by  city  pressure,  while  the  inner 
boiler  is  under  tank  pressure.  The  lower  floors,  which  can  be  reached 
by  city  pressure,  are  supplied  from  the  outer  boiler,  and  the  upper 
floors,  which  cannot  be  reached  by  city  pressure,  are  supplied  from 
the  inner  boiler.  The  connections  for  the  double  boiler  are  to  be 
seen  in  Fig.  A,  Plate  53. 

The  hot-water  supply  line  from  each  boiler  should  be  provided 
with  an  expansion  pipe  taken  from  the  high  point  on  the  line  and 
emptying  over  the  house  tank. 

The  supply  to  the  latter  is  delivered  by  a  pump  or  water  lift. 
From  the  tank  an  overflow  should  be  carried,  generally  into  some 
open  fixture  which  has  a  sufficiently  large  waste  to  insure  the  passage 
of  all  overflow  water  that  may  enter  it,  A  tell-tale  pipe  should  also 
be  run  from  the  tank  to  a  fixture  conveniently  located,  so  that  the 
pump  operator  may  be  warned  when  the  tank  has  been  sufficiently 
filled.  Beneath  the  house  tank  a  drip  pan  should  be  provided  to  col- 
lect any  leakage  that  may  come  from  the  tank,  and  from  this  pan  a 
drip  pipe  delivers  such  leakage  into  some  open  fixture. 

337 


S38  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

In  the  event  of  a  breakdown  of  the  pump,  or  from  other  cause, 
there  is  ahvays  danger  that  the  house  tank  may  lose  its  supply.  If 
this  condition  should  continue  for  some  time,  it  might  result  in  dan- 
ger to  the  inner  boiler,  to  guard  against  which  a  connection  is  made 
from  the  pressure  supply  to  the  outer  boiler,  into  the  tank  supply  to 
the  inner  boiler,  a  check  valve,  C,  being  used  on  this  connection. 
When  the  system  is  working  normally  the  check  valve  remains  closed, 
owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  tank  supply,  but  when  this  is  withdrawn, 
as  would  happen  after  a  time  if  the  pump  were  not  in  operation,  the 
street  pressure  will  open  the  check  valve,  and  thus  keep  the  inner 
boiler  supplied  with  water.  A  check  valve,  B,  prevents  the  siphon- 
age  of  the  contents  of  the  outer  boiler  in  the  case  of  a  break  in  the 
service  pipe.  It  is  the  use  of  this  check  valve  that  necessitates  the 
use  of  an  expansion  pipe  on  the  hot-water  supply  from  the  outer 
boiler,  the  check  valve  cutting  off  the  natural  means  of  expansion. 

The  valves  A  and  D  control  the  use  of  these  two  lines.  If  cir- 
culating pipes  are  used,  as  they  should  be  on  such  work  as  this,  the 
tank  circulating  pipe  should  connect  into  the  return  of  the  inner 
boiler,  and  the  pressure  circulating  pipe  should  connect  into  the 
return  to  the  heater. 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  properly  draining  the  double 
boiler.  If  the  inner  boiler  is  drawn  off  first,  there  may  be  danger 
of  collapsing  it,  due  to  the  creation  of  a  partial  vacuum  inside  it  and 
street  pressure  outside  of  it.  This  danger  is  eliminated  by  arrang- 
ing the  draw-off  in  such  a  way  that  the  outer  boiler  must  be  drawn 
off  first  or  both  boilers  drained  at  the  same  time.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  proper  placing  of  valves,  as  shown  in  Plate  53,  Fig.  A. 

CUT-OFFS 

Under  some  conditions  street  pressure  will  not  at  all  times  of 
the  day  raise  water  to  the  highest  floor  which  is  intended  to  be  sup- 
plied by  city  pressure.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to  use  a  device, 
known  as  a  cut-off,  by  which  tank  pressure  may  be  supplied  to  the 
floor.     Fig.  B  shows  the  simplest  form. 

The  two  cold-water  pressures  are  connected  together,  also  the 
two  hot-water  pressures. 

By  opening  the  two  upper  valves  and  closing  the  two  lower  ones 
the  floor  may  be  provided  with  tank  pressure,  and  vice  versa.     The 


HEADERS 


339 


objection  to  the  use  of  this  crude  form  of  cut-off  is  that  confusion 
may  resuh  from  the  use  of  valves. 

In  Fig.  C  a  patented  form  of  cut-off  is  shown,  in  which  this 
trouble  is  not  present.  By  throwing  the  lever  up  or  down  either 
tank  or  street  pressure  is  turned  on. 

HEADERS 

In  large  hot-water  supply  systems  the  cold-water  lines  connect 
into  a  header,  the  hot-water  lines  into  another,  and  the  circulation 
pipes  into  another. 

This  makes  the  work  very  systematic  and  easily  cared  for. 
Fig.  D  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  a  header,  with  its  branches, 
each  supplied  with  a  shut-off,  and  each  branch  also  provided  with 
a  drip  connecting  into  a  main  drip,  the  latter  emptying  into  an  open 
fixture. 

The  same  general  arrangement  of  headers,  branches,  drips, 
valves,  etc.,  may  be,  and  often  is,  employed  to  great  advantage  in 
connection  with  the  hot-  and  cold-water  supply  of  a  residence. 

In  connection  with  high-grade  residence  work,  a  very  neat  and 
artistic  piece  of  work  can  be  performed  on  these  headers  by  using 
polished  brass  pipe  and  fittings,  and  additional  neatness  in  appear- 
ance may  be  obtained  by  bending  the  pipes  at  changes  in  direction, 
instead  of  performing  the  work  with  fittings.  Better  results  can  also 
be  obtained  from  this  method  for  the  reason  that  there  is  less  fric- 
tion encountered  in  smooth  bends  than  in  bends  made  with  fittings. 

The  employment  of  these  methods  is  almost  a  necessity  on  large 
work,  as  in  such  work  the  supply  piping  is  of  such  a  complex  nature 
that  it  cannot  safely  be  installed  other  than  in  the  most  systematic 
manner. 


Plate  LIV 

HOT-WATER    SUPPLY    FOR    LARGE 
BUILDINGS 


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HOT-WATER    SUPPLY    FOR    LARGE    BUILDINGS 

In  the  supplying"  of  hot  water  for  large  buildings  the  boiler  is 
generally  of  the  horizontal  style,  hung  by  wrought-iron  hang-ers 
from  the  cellar  timbers,  although  vertical  boilers  are  sometimes  used. 
The  source  of  heat  for  such  boilers  is  generally  a  special  tank  heater. 
Live  and  exhaust  steam  are  also  much  used  by  means  of  steam  coils 
placed  inside  the  boiler.  A  combination  often  used  to  advantage 
includes  both  tank  heater  and  steam  coils,  the  heater  being-  used  dur- 
ing the  summer  and  the  coils  during  the  winter  season,  when  the 
heating  plant  of  the  building  is  in  operation.  The  use  of  the  tank 
heater  and  steam  coil  is  seen  in  Fig.  D,  Plate  54. 

In  addition,  special  heating  devices  or  auxiliaries  are  used  in 
this  work,  one  of  them,  known  as  the  P.  P.  Heater,  being  shown 
connected  to  the  boiler  in  Fig.  E,  and  a  sectional  view  of  the  same 
in  Fig.  F,  Plate  54.  As  seen  from  the  latter,  the  device  consists 
essentially  of  three  pipes,  one  inside  the  other.  Cold  water  is  con- 
ducted through  the  innermost  pipe,  from  which  it  passes  into  the 
pipe  or  tube  next  outside,  this  pipe  being  closed  at  its  end. 

Steam  is  conveyed  into  the  space  between  the  middle  pipe  and 
the  outer  one,  thus  entirely  surrounding  the  cold  water  that  enters. 

The  flow  connection  is  made  to  the  middle  pipe,  also  the  draw- 
off  connection.  It  is  claimed  that  the  heating  of  water  by  means  of 
this  heater  is  very  rapid,  and  that  even  in  the  form  of  steam  vapor 
it  will  heat  the  water  more  rapidly  and  in  greater  quantity  than  it 
can  be  heated  by  a  water  front  with  a  hot  fire. 

The  heater  may  be  connected  with  the  steam  piping  of  the 
building,  as  shown  in  Fig.  E. 

The  heater  is  made  in  several  sizes,  ranging  from  the  kitchen- 
boiler  size  to  sizes  suitable  for  large  work.  The  size  of  hot-water 
boilers  naturally  depends  on  the  character  and  use  of  the  building, 
the  number  of  apartments,  and  number  of  fixtures  supplied  with  hot 
water.  In  the  case  of  apartment  buildings  it  is  generally  a  compara- 
tively simple  matter  to  approximate  the  boiler  capacity  necessary, 
but  in  the  case  of  many  buildings,  experience  and  judgment  are 
necessary  in  arriving  at  a  proper  size. 

343 


344 


MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 


A  very  common  method,  and  one  that  is  ordinarily  a  safe  one 
to  follow,  is  to  estimate  about  20  gallons  of  boiler  capacity  for  each 
full  set  of  fixtures  that  would  commonly  require  hot  water  in  an 
apartment.  These  fixtures  would  include  the  kitchen  sink,  wash 
trays,  bath  tub,  and  lavatory.  If  any  of  these  fixtures  are  omitted, 
or  others  are  added,  a  due  allowance  may  be  made. 

Reckoning  on  this  basis,  the  following  table  shows  the  boiler 
capacity  necessary  for  different  numbers  of  apartments,  and  the 
standard  sizes  of  boilers  having  the  respective  capacities. 

TABLE    OF    HOT-WATER    BOILER    CAPACITIES 

No.  of  Apartments  Capacity  of  Boiler  Size  of  Boiler 

4 100  gals. 


6, 
8, 

10. 

12, 

16. 

20. 

24. 

36. 


120 
180 

215 
250 

365 
430 

575 
720 


22'' 

X 

60 

24'' 

X 

60 

30" 

X 

60 

30^' 

X 

72 

30'' 

X 

84 

36'^ 

X 

84 

42- 

X 

72 

42- 

X 

96 

42- 

X 

120 

Another  table  which  will  be  found  of  value  is  the  following, 
which  shows  the  number  and  size  of  steam  coils  necessary  for  the 
several  sizes  of  hot-water  boilers  specified  in  the  foregoing  table. 


TABLE    OF    STEAM    COILS    FOR    HOT-WATER    BOILERS 
Capacity  of  Boiler  Size  and  Number  of  Coils 

100  to  120  gals 4  i-in.     pipes. 

180  "    215     "     6  i-in. 

250  "    365     "     6  i>4-in.    " 

430-575     "     4  1/2-m.    " 

720  "     6  iK-in.    " 

In  Figs.  A,  B,  and  C,  of  Plate  54,  are  shown  three  different 
methods  of  installing  large  hot-water  supply  systems. 

Of  the  three  systems,  probably  that  shown  in  Fig.  A  is  least 
satisfactory,  for  the  reason  that  the  supply  at  different  points  is  less 
evenly  heated   than    in   the   case   of   the   other    two    systems.      For 


HOT-WATER    SUPPLY    FOR    LARGE    BUILDINGS     345 

instance,  the  hot-water  branches  taken  out  of  the  return  will  not 
deliver  such  hot  water  as  those  on  the  flow  line.  However,  the  choice 
of  a  hot-water  supply  system  must  often  depend  upon  the  character 
and  construction  of  the  building  to  be  supplied.  All  things  being 
equal,  the  overhead  system  shown  in  Fig.  C  will  probably  do  as  sat- 
isfactory work  as  any  of  the  others  shown,  although  the  system  in 
Fig.  B  is  an  excellent  one.  The  latter  should  be  provided  at  its  high 
point  with  an  air  vent,  while  the  former  needs  none. 


Plate  LV 

AUTOMATIC    CONTROL    OF    HOT-WATER 

TANKS 


Auh^moNc  Cc^nhr^l 

of  //o/-    Waf-er    Tanks 


Plol-z  55. 


£ 


w 


<Su.f>f=7j 


a 


^rn 


^ 


F'9A- 


^ 


fa 


jQ)iaphragj7^ 


f 


n'^-  B. 


^  eg  uIo/-l7ZQ 


TVos/e 


CJzecJz. 
ybJye 


M- 


C^Z'=>?7^ 


C<=>2l 


Jq)Z'C7222 


AUTOMATIC    CONTROL    OF    HOT-WATER    TANKS 

On  large  work  it  is  essential  to  satisfactory  service  to  provide 
automatic  control  for  the  hot-water  tank.  On  smaller  work,  also, 
automatic  control  may  be  used  to  advantage.  When  the  supply 
system  is  under  the  attention  of  a  painstaking  attendant  the  neces- 
sity of  automatic  regulation  is  not  so  great,  but  in  general  constant 
attention  to  the  necessary  requirements  cannot  be  depended  upon,  in 
which  case  control  of  the  temperature  of  the  hot-water  suppl}^  by 
automatic  means  avoids  all  trouble. 

There  are  several  excellent  systems  of  regulation  now  on  the 
market,  two  of  which  are  shown  in  the  several  illustrations  of  Plate 
55.  Fig.  A  represents  a  sectional  view  of  one  of  these  regulators 
for  use  in  connection  with  boilers  heated  by  kitchen  range  or  special 
tank  heater.  Fig.  B  shows  this  regulator  in  use  in  connection  with 
a  boiler  heated  by  tank  heater.  The  regulator  should  always  be  con- 
nected to  the  flow  pipe,  and  may  be  in  either  a  horizontal  or  vertical 
position.  In  using  this  regulator,  the  part  B  is  filled  with  water 
through  the  opening  D,  which  is  closed  by  means  of  a  plug.  About 
a  cupful  of  water  should  be  drawn  out  through  a  small  tube,  and 
this  liquid  replaced  by  an  equivalent  amount  of  gasoline. 

The  hot  water  of  the  flow  pipe  which  passes  through  C,  C,  heats 
the  contents  of  B  to  the  temperature  of  the  hot  water  itself. 

Gasoline  has  a  somewhat  lower  boiling  point  than  water,  and 
will  boil  just  before  the  water  in  B  and  C,  C,  reaches  the  boiling 
point.  The  gasoline  in  boiling  exerts  a  pressure  which  is  trans- 
mitted through  A  to  a  diaphragm,  which  in  turn,  by  means  of  a 
lever,  operates  the  chain  which  will  close  the  draught  damper  and 
open  the  check  damper.  Wlien  the  temperature  of  the  water  has 
dropped  sufficiently,  the  diaphragm  will  react,  opening  the  draught 
damper  and  closing  the  check. 

The  regulator  may  be  set  at  any  convenient  point  in  the  flow 
pipe,  the  only  requirement  being  that  it  be  set  so  that  the  plug  D 
shall  be  at  the  top,  in  order  that  it  may  be  filled. 

Fig.  C  shows  the  regulation  of  live  and  exhaust  steam  to  the 
steam  coils  when  the  boiler  is  to  be  heated  in  this  way. 

349 


350  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

The  regulator  is  connected  into  the  end  of  the  boiler  and  about 
three-quarters  of  the  distance  up  from  the  bottom.  This  regulator 
should  be  set  horizontally,  with  the  tube  running  into  the  boiler.  A 
diaphragm  steam  valve  is  placed  on  the  steam-supply  pipe,  at  a  point 
between  the  boiler  and  the  live-steam  connection,  in  order  to  control 
both  live  and  exhaust  steam.  City  pressure  is  connected  to  the  regu- 
lator, and  thence  to  the  steam  valve.  Before  reaching  the  regulator 
the  water  supply  is  reduced  to  the  proper  pressure  by  a  filter.  As 
the  temperature  of  the  tank  water  rises,  the  expansion  of  the  tube 
inside  the  boiler  operates  the  regulator,  which  allows  the  water  pres- 
sure to  reach  and  close  the  steam  valve,  thus  shutting  off  the  supply 
of  exhaust  steam  to  the  coil. 

AMien  the  water  cools,  the  regulator  acts  in  an  opposite  man- 
ner, the  city  pressure  is  shut  off',  and  the  water  carried  away  from 
the  steam  valve  through  the  waste. 

On  the  live-steam  connection  the  regulating  valve  is  adjusted 
to  open  at  a  lower  temperature  than  that  usually  carried  in  the 
exhaust-steam  pipe.  Thus,  when  the  latter  falls  below  its  normal 
point,  live  steam  is  admitted  through  the  steam  valve. 

If  a  tank  heater  is  also  connected  to  a  boiler  thus  supplied,  the 
regulator  shown  in  Fig.  B  may  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the 
regulating  apparatus  of  Fig.  C. 

The  regulator  of  Fig.  D  is  of  another  make,  but  working  along 
similar  lines  to  the  regulator  of  Fig.  C.  By  means  of  this  regulator 
any  desired  temperature  of  the  water  may  be  obtained  by  moving 
the  pointer  toward  "  cooler  "  or  "  warmer." 

By  means  of  a  diaphragm  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  B,  this 
regulator  can  be  made  to  control  the  temperature  of  hot-water  tanks 
heated  by  tank  heaters. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  ESTIMATING  PLUMBING 

CONSTRUCTION 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING    PLUMBING 
CONSTRUCTION 

It  is  the  belief  of  the  author  that  a  special  chapter  devoted  to 
the  subject  of  the  estimating  of  plumbing  work  will  add  to  the  value 
of  this  work  in  the  eyes  of  many  of  its  readers. 

The  plumbing-  fraternity  at  large  are  just  as  careless  in  their 
estimating  of  labor  and  material  as  those  who  are  connected  with 
other  lines  of  construction.  The  plumber  who  keeps  a  close  account 
of  these  things,  and  knows,  when  the  work  is  completed,  just  how 
much  he  has  made  or  lost,  is  the  exception.  It  is  a  fact,  indeed,  that 
many  do  not  seem  to  wish  to  know  when  a  contract  has  been  finished 
at  a  loss,  and  it  is  also  a  fact  that  the  author  has  met  those  who  have 
frankly  refused  to  figure  into  their  estimate  such  incidentals  as  gaso- 
line, screws,  putty,  freight,  cartage,  etc.,  for  fear  of  losing  the  con- 
tract. This  would  appear  to  be  a  strange  thing  in  a  business  man, 
for  these  items  represent  an  expense  which  must  be  met  just  as  cer- 
tainly as  such  items  as  traps,  ferrules,  etc. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  successful  plumbing  firms  fol- 
low a  very  exact  system  of  estimating,  and  keep  a  close  account  of 
all  stock  and  labor  used  on  each  contract,  thus  being  able  to  figure 
exactly  the  amount  of  profit  or  loss  on  any  completed  piece  of  work. 
Many  firms,  however,  while  estimating  accurately  and  safely  on  stock 
and  labor  items,  do  not  figure  any  percentage  into  their  contracts  to 
cover  inside  expenses,  that  is,  rent,  office  expenses,  telephone,  etc. 
This  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  and  consideration  or  noncon- 
sideration  of  it  often  means  the  success  or  failure  of  the  firm.  Any 
firm  doing  a  construction  business  must,  along  certain  lines,  be 
guided  by  past  experience  in  estimating  certain  items.  The  expense 
of  conducting  business,  which  includes  the  items  named  above  and 
many  others,  is  a  matter  which  must  be  figured  largely  by  looking 
into  those  expenses  of  the  past,  and  from  the  comparison  of  this 
amount  with  the  gross  amount  of  business  done,  the  percentage  that 
must  be  allowed  for  the  conducting  of  business  may  be  arrived  at. 
Thus,  if  it  costs  a  firm  $500  to  carry  on  a  yearly  business  of  $10,000, 

353 


354  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

the  percentage  that  must  be  allowed  for  this  item  of  expense  is  5%. 
This  is  a  matter  which  varies  greatly  with  different  firms,  some  being 
able  to  conduct  business  at  much  less  expense  than  others. 

It  is  claimed  by  many  firms  doing  a  moderate  amount  of  busi- 
ness that  15%  is  not  too  large  an  allowance  for  business  expenses. 
Instead  of  giving  this  as  the  proper  percentage  to  be  added,  how- 
ever, it  is  the  opinion  of  the  author  that  each  firm  should  approximate 
the  amount  in  the  manner  above  mentioned. 

Another  important  matter  is  the  amount  of  profit  which  may 
fairly  be  charged  on  contract  work.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  to  many 
of  the  readers  of  this  work  that  at  the  present  time  many  contracts 
are  taken  at  as  low  a  percentage  of  profit  as  5%. 

When  it  is  considered  that,  in  its  anxiety  to  obtain  a  contract, 
a  firm  is  willing  to  take  it  at  this  low  figure,  generally  without  add- 
ing any  percentage  for  the  expense  of  conducting  business  or  for 
extras  that  may  be  overlooked  in  estimating,  it  is  clear  that  the 
greater  the  number  of  such  contracts  taken  by  the  firm,  the  sooner 
they  must  go  into  bankruptcy.  There  are  many  plumbing  concerns, 
it  may  safely  be  said,  who  would  be  better  oiT  if  they  never  took 
contract  work,  for  the  losses  that  must  be  sustained  in  this  branch 
of  their  business  must  be  offset  by  the  profits  derived  from  their 
jobbing  or  repair  work,  or  bankruptcy  is  their  only  end.  A  profit 
of  25%  on  contract  work,  according  to  the  author's  opinion,  is  by 
no  means  too  great.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  on  large  work  a 
safe  profit  of  a  less  amount  may  be  satisfactory. 

It  is  well  understood  by  the  author  that  these  matters  must  be 
regulated  by  each  individual  concern,  and  it  is  equally  well  under- 
stood that  if  a  firm  is  to  carry  on  a  successful  and  honest  business, 
living  profits  must  be  secured,  and  that  to  secure  them  no  legitimate 
business  expense  can  be  shirked  in  making  estimates  of  cost. 

The  first  essential  in  estimate  work  is  a  complete  and  reliable 
form  of  estimate,  the  use  of  which  is  very  necessary,  as  it  is  not 
within  the  power  of  any  man  to  remember  at  all  times  the  scores  of 
items  that  should  enter  a  plumbing  estimate.  The  low  bidder  on 
contract  work  is  often  low  because  he  has  forgotten  to  figure  on 
some  important  item.  The  writer  recalls  a  firm  which  secured  a  cer- 
tain contract  and  found,  when  the  work  was  under  way,  that  all  the 
water  closets — six  in  number — had  been  omitted,  which  meant  the 
completion  of  the  work  at  a  loss.     The  use  of  a  correct  estimate 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING 


355 


sheet  avoids  these  troubles.  In  connection  with  this  subject  there  is 
shown  an  estimate  sheet  which  is  very  satisfactory.  In  this  connec- 
tion, however,  it  must  be  stated  that  it  is  a  difficuh  matter  to  con- 
struct an  estimate  sheet  that  will  please  everyone,  and  that  an  esti- 
mate sheet  entirely  satisfactory  for  one  part  of  the  country  may  not 
answer  the  purpose  of  some  other  section,  owing  to  the  great  differ- 
ences that  may  exist  in  the  methods  and  materials  employed.  If 
unable  to  secure  a  satisfactory  published  form  of  estimate,  one 
arranged  to  suit  individual  tastes  may  be  printed  at  small  cost. 

PLUMBING   ESTIMATE 


Date. 


Soil 

Pipe 

EX.  HEAVY 

STANDARD 

ft. 

2" 

ft. 

2" 

ft. 

0 

ft. 

0// 

0 

ft. 

^' 

ft. 

ft. 

ft. 

f 

ft. 

6" 

ft, 

,      6" 

ft. 

'^" 

ft. 

.     8'' 

Fittings 

Traps 

7." 

f 

r 

Ys 

2" 

0 

4' 

Tees 

2" 

f 

A' 

TYs 

2" 

f      ■ 

A" 

Bends 

2" 

-1// 
0 

A" 

Hubs 

2" 

0 

A" 

Dbl  Hubs 

2" 

0 

A" 

Vent  Ts 

2" 

-.// 
0 

A" 

Vent  Caps 

2" 

n't 
0 

A' 

Increasers 

2" 

f 

A' 

Reducers 

2" 

0 

A" 

Offsets 

2" 

0 

A" 

Dbl  Ys  or 

Ts 

2" 

n'f 
0 

A" 

Cl'nouts,  I. 

B.  or 

Br. 

2" 

f 

A' 

Misc.  Fittings 

Flooks 

H; 

angers 

Clamps 

Caulking  Lead 

lbs. 

Oakum 

lbs. 

Gasoline 

2;als. 

Roof  Flanges 

3'' 

A" 

f 

&' 


35^ 


MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 
Galvanized  Pipe 


ft.      ^'^ 
ft.   iV^'' 


ft. 

ft.     2 


H' 


ft.  I    '' 

ft.     2  1/'' 


ft.     1%'' 

ft.   3     " 


Galv.  Fittings,  Water 
Galv.  Fittings,  Vent 


Galvanized  Fittings 


i%" 


Br.  Ferrules 
S  &  W  Cocks 
Valves 
Sill  Cocks 
Solder  Nipples 
Solder  Nipples 
Solder  Unions 


'4\ 

Fittings 


Fittings 


lbs.      %'^ 

lbs.    I     " 

Total  Lead  Pipe 

Solder 


Brass  Work 


V*" 


V2" 


74- 


o./ff 
7A- 


Brass  Pipe 


Brass  Tubing 


Lead  Pipe 


114" 


%" 


lbs.      %" 
lbs.    \y^" 
lbs. 
lbs. 


i%" 


i%" 


lbs.  %" 
lbs.  i%" 
Sheet  Lead 

prs.  Lead  Tacks 


lbs-  Y^'' 
lbs.  2  " 
lbs. 


Water 


Gas  Piping,  Outlets 

Meter  Connections 

Gas 


Range 


Soapstone  or  Slate 

Brackets 

Traps 


Sinks,  Iron 

Enamel  or  Porcelain 
Bibbs 
Ferrules  Gaskets 


Legs 
Plugs 


Wash  Trays 


Covers 


Chain 


Traps 


Bibbs 

Ferrules 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING 
H.  W.  Boilers 


357 


Copper 
Boiler  Stands 
Sed,  Cocks 


Galv. 
Tubes 
House  Tank 


Valves 
Ball  Cock  and  Valve 


Pantry  Cocks 
Traps 


Pantry  Sinks 


Plugs,  Chain,  Stays 
Ferrules 


Water  Closets 


Tanks  Tank  Boards 

Brackets  Chain  &  Pull 

N.  P.  Flush  &  Supply  Pipes 

Ball  Cock  cSl  Valve 

Clamps  Bolts  Floor  Flanges 

Local  Vent  &  Fittings  2" 


Seats 

Lead  Bends 
N.  P.  Flanges 
Ferrules 
Floor  Slabs 


Bath  Tubs 


Bath  Cocks 
Waste  &  Overflow 
Traps 


Plug  &  Chain 
N.  P.  Valves 
Ferrules 


N.  P.  Supplies 
N.  P.  Flanges 


Lavatories 


Bowls 

Chain  &  Stays 

Gaskets 

N.  P.  Traps 


Cocks 

Clamps 

N,  P.  Supplies 

N.  P.  Flanges 


Brackets 
Traps 


Plugs 


N. 


Ferrules 
N.  P.  Wastes 
P.  Valves  Marble 


N.  P.  Flush  Pipes 
Traps 


Urinals 

Valves 
Ferrules 


Tanks 
Marble 


Cocks 
Slate 


Tanks 


Cocks 


Slop  Sinks 
Traps 


Ferrules 


358  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 


Miscellaneous 

Pumps 

Air  Chambers 

Valves 

Screws 

Putty 

Plaster  Paris 

Tile  Pipe 

&  F't'gs        Carpenter 

Excavating 

Carfare 

Board 

Fr't  &  Cartage 

Labor 

Days,  Plumber 

Total 

Helper 

Add  for  Expense 

% 

"     Profit 
Total  Estimate 

% 

There  are  several  features  connected  with  estimate  sheets  that 
are  worth  mentioning". 

In  the  estimate  sheet  shown,  for  instance,  such  items  as  traps, 
ferrules,  bibbs,  etc.,  are  to  be  found  under  each  fixture.  Some  may 
prefer  to  have  such  items  lumped,  rather  than  scattered,  but  in  pre- 
senting in  connection  with  each  fixture  the  items  that  are  needed 
in  the  installation  of  that  fixture  there  is  possibly  less  danger  of 
omissions. 

Under  brass  work,  however,  such  items  as  brass  ferrules  and 
valves  are  given,  although  appearing  under  the  different  fixtures. 
This  is  necessary,  as  such  material  as  ferrules  and  valves  may  be 
used  for  purposes  not  identified  with  any  particular  fixture.  Such 
an  item  as  lead  pipe  is  more  conveniently  and  accurately  figured,  and 
with  less  labor,  in  the  lump  than  under  respective  fixtures. 

Before  being  able  to  figure  material  accurately  and  intelligently, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  a  slight  understanding  at  least  of  architects' 
plans. 

The  term  "  plan  "  is  used  in  general  to  designate  all  architects' 
drawings.  Technically,  however,  a  plan  is  a  view  looking  down 
onto  an  object,  and  an  elevation  is  a  view  looking  at  the  object 
from  the  front  or  the  side. 

In  the  case  of  the  floor  plans,  they  show  locations  of  fixtures  and 
pipes,  and  cellar  plans  show  horizontal  measurements  of  soil  piping, 
water  piping,  etc. 

The  front  or  side  elevation  of  the  building,  on  the  other  hand, 
shows  the  distances  between  floors,  from  which  can  be  estimated  the 
heights  of  the  vertical  lines  of  pipe. 

Architects'  plans  are  never  drawn  full  size,  but  always  at  some 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING  359 

standard  scale,  usually  54  ^^-  to  the  foot  for  small  buildings  and  }i 
in.  to  the  foot  for  large  buildings. 

In  order  to  measure  piping  from  such  a  drawing,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  understand  how  to  use  a  scale.  In  the  work  of  an  architect 
or  engineer,  where  the  object  of  which  drawings  are  made,  is  very 
large,  it  is  necessary  to  show  the  object  on  a  smaller  scale.  If  the 
scale  is  ^  in.  to  the  foot,  a  quarter  inch  measured  on  any  of 
the  drawings  represents  one  foot  in  the  actual  work  itself,  and  if 
the  scale  is  }i  in.  to  the  foot,  any  measurement  of  yg  in,  represents 
one  foot  in  the  actual  work. 

The  general  custom  in  estimating  material  is  to  estimate  the 
soil  piping  first,  and  by  this  is  meant  the  house  drain  and  all  its  con- 
nections, the  stacks  and  their  main  vent  lines. 

The  cellar  plan  (see  Plate  31)  is  first  referred  to,  and  the 
lengths  of  the  several  sizes  of  horizontal  piping  measured  at  the 
proper  scale. 

If  Plate  31  is  drawn  at  a  scale  of  yi  in.  to  the  foot,  the  straight 
run  from  outside  the  cellar  wall  to  the  cleanout  at  the  end  will  be 
found  to  be  5^  in.,  representing  45  ft.  of  4-in.  pipe. 

In  the  same  way  the  branches,  fresh-air  inlet,  etc.,  are  esti- 
mated, the  measurements  in  ordinary  work  being  made  without  ref- 
erence to  the  space  taken  up  by  fittings;  that  is,  measurements  for 
straight  pipe  are  taken  without  deducting  anything  for  fittings. 

The  excess  measurement  thus  obtained  will  make  a  due  allow- 
ance for  loss  in  cutting  lengths  of  pipe.  If,  however,  fittings  are 
very  close  together,  as  in  the  use  of  a  number  of  branch  fittings  for 
a  line  of  water  closets,  this  method  of  measuring  may  be  modified. 
Attention  is  next  directed  to  the  elevation  of  the  building  being  fig- 
ured, in  order  to  estimate  the  lengths  of  straight  pipe  in  the  vertical 
main  lines.  The  points  to  be  considered  may  be  observed  from 
Plate  33,  which  shows  an  elevation  of  a  plumbing  system. 

The  vertical  lengths  may  be  found  by  measuring  on  the  eleva- 
tion the  distance  from  the  cellar  bottom  to  a  point  usually  2  ft.  above 
the  roof. 

If  the  roof  is  flat,  these  lengths  will  be  the  same,  but  in  the  case 
of  pitched  roofs,  reference  to  either  the  front  or  side  elevation  will 
show  at  what  point  the  stack  passes  through,  thus  enabling  the  esti- 
mator to  find  its  length. 

The  main  vertical  vent  lines,   vertical   rain-leader   connections. 


36c  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

the  vertical  part  of  the  fresh-air  inlet,  and  other  vertical  lines  should 
next  be  measured,  and  the  total  lengths  of  each  size  of  pipe  inserted 
in  the  estimate. 

It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  divide  each  amount  of  soil  pipe,  if  of 
cast  iron,  between  single-  and  double-hub  pipe,  as  the  latter  will  be 
found  very  convenient  in  many  places. 

The  next  thing  in  order  is  the  estimating  of  soil-pipe  fittings, 
including  main-vent  fittings. 

The  fittings  needed  in  the  cellar  on  horizontal  lines  will  be  evi- 
dent from  reference  to  the  cellar  plan,  which  should  always  show  a 
plan  of  the  horizontal  cellar  work.  A  rough  sketch  of  the  vertical 
lines,  both  soil,  waste,  and  vent,  with  their  fittings  and  connections 
into  the  horizontal  lines,  will  be  found  very  helpful  in  estimating  the 
fittings  to  be  used.  The  pipes  shown  in  such  a  sketch  may  be  repre- 
sented by  single  lines  instead  of  double  lines,  as  in  Plate  33. 

L"^nless  designated  in  such  a  sketch,  the  estimating  of  fittings 
must  generally  depend  upon  the  picture  of  the  work,  at  different 
points,  which  the  estimator  holds  in  his  mind.  While  this  method 
often  results  in  the  omission  of  fittings,  the  practical  estimator  can 
generally,  if  careful,  figure  very  close  to  the  fittings  needed.  At  the 
same  time,  very  few  plumbing  systems  are  estimated  which  do  not 
call  for  a  considerably  greater  number  of  fittings  when  the  work  is 
actually  constructed  than  was  estimated.  These  extra  fittings  are 
largely  bends  and  offsets  used  in  getting  around  obstructions  wliich 
did  not  appear  from  the  plans  or  were  unnoticed  by  the  estimator. 
Allowance  should  be  made  for  extra  fittings  and  extra  material  of 
other  kinds.  Many  practical  men  claim  that  the  extra  stock  de- 
manded, over  and  above  that  figured  in  the  estimate,  will  average 
about  57o. 

The  fittings  should  be  arranged  according  to  size  and  character, 
as  seen  in  the  estimate  form  shown.  Before  leaving  this  part  of 
the  work,  other  materials,  such  as  cleanouts,  hangers,  clamps,  roof 
flanges,  oakum,  caulking  lead,  and  gasoline  should  be  estimated. 

The  estimating  of  caulking  lead  is  an  approximation,  but  expe- 
rience will  enable  the  estimator  to  come  very  close  to  the  true  amount. 
This  item  is  very  generally  estimated  ofThand,  which  often  comes 
wide  of  the  mark. 

On  large  work,  especially,  a  definite  estimate  should  be  made, 
the  following  being  a   reliable  method.     It  is   clearly  seen  that  no 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING 


361 


caulked  joint  will  be  called  for  excepting  where  there  is  a  hub. 
Therefore,  estimate  one  hub  for  each  length  of  pipe,  the  number  of 
lengths  being  found  by  dividing  the  total  lengths  of  soil  pipe  by  5. 
In  the  case  of  fittings,  such  as  bends,  count  one  hub,  tees  and  Ys 
two  hubs,  and  double  fittings  three  or  more  hubs,  as  the  case  may  be. 

In  the  case  of  a  4  X  2  Y,  one  hub  would  be  4  in.  and  the  other 
2  in.  The  number  of  hubs  of  each  size  should  be  added,  and  the 
amounts  multiplied  by  the  weight  of  lead  for  the  respective  size 
of  joint. 

The  amount  of  lead  used  for  the  several  sizes  of  caulked  joints 
is  not  a  definite  amount,  as  different  workmen  will  naturally  use 
different  amounts.    The  following  table  shows  weights  of  lead  joints: 

2-in.  lead  joint i^^  lbs. 


3-m. 
4-in. 
5-in. 
6-in. 
7-in. 
8-in. 
lo-in. 


^/4 

3 

3% 


These  weights  represent  y_\  lb.  for  each  inch  in  size  of  the  pipe. 
Many  will  claim  that  i  lb.  to  the  inch  is  not  too  much  to  figure  on. 

The  weights  of  lead  found  necessary  for  the  different  sizes  of 
pipe,  added  together,  will  give  the  total  amount  of  caulking  lead 
required. 

Oakum  is  generally  estimated  off'hand.  The  following  table 
will  give  an  idea,  however,  of  the  amount  of  oakum  necessary  for 
joints  of  different  sizes: 


2-in.  lead  joint, 

3-in.  " 

4-in.  " 

5-in.  " 

6-in.  " 
7-m. 

S-in.  " 

lo-in.  "         " 


ft.  oakum 


5 

■1/ 


sy. 

9/3 
12 


Such  fittings  as  cleanouts,  plugs,  and  ferrules  do  not  have  to  be 


362  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

taken  into  account  in  estimating  caulking  lead  and  oakum,  for  the 
hubs  into  which  these  fittings  are  caulked  have  already  been  counted. 

In  the  estimating  of  lead  waste  and  vent  pipe  it  is  simply  a 
matter  of  figuring  mentally  the  amount  of  each  size  needed;  and 
knowing  the  number  of  pounds  per  foot  of  the  various  sizes,  the  total 
weight  may  be  found.  It  is  necessary  to  know  the  total  weight  of 
both  waste,  vent,  and  supply  pipe  if  of  lead,  as  this  material  is  sold 
by  the  pound  and  not  by  the  foot.  In  filling  out  the  estimate  sheet, 
however,  the  estimator  should  be  careful  to  fill  out  against  each  size 
the  amount  of  that  size  necessary,  as  when  it  comes  to  ordering  stock 
the  number  of  feet  of  each  size  will  need  to  be  known. 

A  table  of  weights  of  lead  pipe  is  necessary  to  figure  this  item 
from.     The  following  is  a  table  of  safe  weights  for  ordinary  work: 

Diameter  of  Lead  Supply  Pipe  Weight  per  foot 

}i    in 15^  lbs. 

y2      " 2 

H  " 2y2  " 

74  3 

I       " 4 

Diameter  of  Lead  Waste  Pipe  Weight  per  foot 

I      in 2     lbs. 

134  " 2>^" 

1^/2" yA" 

2    " 4    " 

4     " 6      " 

In  connection  with  lead  pipe,  wiping  solder  should  also  be  fig- 
ured. The  number  of  joints  of  each  size  may  be  quickly  estimated, 
and  knowing  the  amount  of  solder  necessary  for  a  joint  of  each  size, 
the  total  weight  of  solder  may  easily  be  found.  It  is  very  customary 
for  plumbers  to  estimate  solder  according  to  fixtures — so  much  for 
a  sink,  so  much  for  a  water  closet,  etc.  In  figuring  many  plumbing 
systems  this  would  be  safe  if  the  estimator  has  a  correct  idea  of  the 
amount  necessary  for  each  fixture.  In  work  which  is  out  of  the 
ordinary  run,  however,  it  might  not  be  safe  to  estimate  in  this  way. 

In  getting  at  the  full  amount  of  solder,  lead  supply-pipe  joints 
and  connections,  fiush  and  supply-pipe  joints  for  water  closets,  for 
urinals,  slop  sinks,  etc.,  must  be  taken  into  account. 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING 


3^3 


The  amount  of  solder  used  per  joint  of  the  different  sizes  is  a 
variable  quantity,  as  some  workmen  make  much  heavier  joints  than 
others.  It  is  customary  among  some  estimators  to  allow  one  pound 
of  solder  per  joint,  regardless  of  size,  including  the  small  supply- 
pipe  joints,  as  well  as  the  large-size  waste  and  vent-pipe  joints.  This 
might  possibly  have  averaged  safely  in  the  days  of  lead  supply  work, 
but  as  work  is  now  generally  constructed,  a  better  way  would  seem 
to  be  to  find  by  practice  the  weights  of  joints  of  the  several  sizes,  and 
thus  make  the  estimate  a  close  and  accurate  one.  The  following 
table  may  be  used  as  a  guide,  though  undoubtedly  varying  widely 
from  the  custom  of  many  workmen: 


Diameter  of  Pipe. 

Solder  per  Joint  .... 

h  in- 
fib. 

1  in. 
I  lb. 

fin. 
I  lb. 

I  in. 
i\  lbs. 

ij  in. 
li  lbs. 

ij  in. 
if  lbs. 

2  in. 

2-2  J  lbs. 

4  in. 
3-4  lbs. 

In  the  matter  of  galvanized  piping,  the  number  of  feet  of  each 
size  should  be  estimated. 

To  find  the  amount  of  galvanized  supply  pipe,  brass  or  lead, 
as  the  case  may  be,  reference  must  be  made  to  the  cellar  and  floor 
plans  mostly  in  figuring  out  horizontal  runs,  and  the  elevation  re- 
ferred to,  to  give  vertical  measurements.  The  matter  of  fittings  on 
supply  work  is  a  difficult  matter  to  estimate  in  detail,  as  they  are 
numerous,  and  it  is  hardly  possible  to  figure  on  just  what  fittings 
and  the  respective  amounts  of  each  that  are  going  to  be  required. 
On  such  items  as  these  the  estimator  of  experience  will  often  cast 
up  the  amount  in  his  own  mind  after  a  little  study  of  the  plans,  and 
he  may  usually  come  very  close  to  the  amount  of  cost  represented  in 
the  item. 

The  preservation  of  old  estimates  and  complete  lists  of  stock 
used  will  often  allow  the  estimator  to  refer  to  them  and  get  a  line 
on  work  of  similar  nature  which  he  may  be  figuring.  Galvanized 
vent  fittings  should  be  estimated  in  detail  as  far  as  possible,  just  as 
soil-pipe  fittings  are  estimated. 

Stop  cocks,  valves,  sill  cocks,  solder  nipples,  and  unions  should 
also  be  estimated  as  nearly  in  detail  as  possible,  as  an  offhand  esti- 
mate of  material  that  represents  so  much  cost  as  these  items  is  not 
a  safe  thing. 

Gas  piping  often  enters  into  the  plumbing  contract.  It  is  some- 
times safe  on  new  work  to  approximate  the  cost  of  the  gas  piping 


364  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

at  so  much  per  outlet.  If  this  can  be  done  it  saves  considerable  labor 
in  figuring  out  the  cost  of  different  sizes  to  be  used,  fittings,  and  labor. 

Reference  to  preyious  work  of  similar  nature  is  of  much  help 
in  this  connection.  Estimating  at  so  much  per  outlet  is  not  a  safe 
method  on  old  work,  that  is,  where  gas  piping  is  to  be  installed  in 
an  old  house.  Many  plumbers  are  inclined  to  estimate  old  work  in 
this  way,  however,  and  often  suffer  loss  thereby. 

Water,  gas,  and  range  connections  are  not  generally  considered 
a  part  of  the  general  plumbing  contract  in  many  sections,  but  in 
other  sections  must  be  included. 

There  is  little  to  be  said  on  the  matter  of  estimating  fixtures 
and  their  trimmings.  Sizes  and  list  prices  may  be  found  in  the  cata- 
logues of  jobbers  and  manufacturers,  and  knowing  the  prevailing 
discount,  the  net  cost  may  be  easily  arrived  at.  Many  fixtures,  water 
closets,  for  instance,  are  often  figured  complete,  that  is,  instead  of 
having  to  figure  the  crockery,  tank,  brackets,  chain  and  pull,  etc.,  in 
detail,  a  cost  price  of  the  entire  outfit  may  be  obtained.  This  is  true 
of  other  fixtures  also — lavatories,  urinals,  etc. 

When  so  figured,  however,  the  estimator  must  be  careful  to  note 
any  items  required  in  the  specifications  which  are  not  included  in  the 
combination  price. 

The  estimating  of  marble  and  slate  may  often  be  made  very 
easy  by  the  use  of  the  table  of  contents  of  marble  slabs  shown  under 
Plate  2.  The  area  found  from  this  table,  multiplied  by  the  cost  per 
square  foot,  will  give  the  cost  of  the  marble  required. 

Much  loss  may  be  sustained  if  miscellaneous  items  are  not 
given  due  consideration,  items  such  as  carfare,  board,  cartage,  etc. 
In  some  sections  of  the  country  the  excavating  for  pipe  trenches, 
etc.,  and  the  laying  of  tile  pipe  is  included  in  the  mason's  contract, 
rather  than  in  the  plumber's. 

Of  much  importance  to  the  person  who  is  just  entering  upon 
the  work  of  estimating,  and  desirous  of  general  information,  is  the 
method  of  carrying  out  costs  against  the  different  items  in  the  esti- 
mate. Nearly  all  plumbing  goods  are  sold  and  billed  at  a  discount 
from  a  list  price,  and  in  carrying  costs  in  an  estimate  on  plumbing 
work  it  is  necessary  to  have  not  only  these  list  prices,  but  also  the 
prevailing  discounts  on  the  different  lines  of  material.  It  would  sys- 
tematize the  work  of  estimating  and  make  it  far  easier  if  the  esti- 
mator would  bring  all  these  lists  together  in  a  book  of  proper  size, 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING 


365 


so  that  when  it  comes  to  figuring  costs,  the  hst  price  and  discount 
on  any  material  whatever  may  be  referred  to  without  having  to 
refer  to  numerous  catalogues  and  lists  that  may  require  considerable 
searching  for  before  they  can  be  located.  The  matter  of  list  prices 
and  discounts  on  such  materials  as  cast-  and  wrought-iron  pipe, 
brass  goods,  etc.,  has  been  systematized  to  a  considerable  extent  dur- 
ing recent  years,  and  is  handled  more  easily  therefore.  For  instance, 
the  lists  of  standard  and  extra-heavy  cast-iron  pipe  are  so  arranged 
now  that  one  discount  applies  to  both  grades,  whereas  formerly  there 
was  one  discount  on  standard  and  another  on  extra-heavy  pipe. 

In  order  to  show  how  the  cost  of  material  may  be  carried  out 
on  an  estimate,  it  will  be  pertinent  to  the  subject  to  show  the  cost 
figured  on  a  list  of  soil  pipe  and  a  list  of  soil-pipe  fittings. 

In  the  following  list,  after  the  style  of  pipe  or  fitting  is  named, 
is  given  the  list  price  per  foot  of  soil  pipe  or  the  list  price  per  single 
fitting,  then  the  total  number  of  feet  of  pipe  or  total  number  of  fit- 
tings reckoned  at  this  list: 


20ft.  2  in.  X.  H.  C.  I.  Pipe.... 

---.      <(      ^      u  a  n  u 

60     "      4     "  "  "  "         . . . , 

25   "   4  "    Standard  C.  I.  Pipe 
Disc,  25% 


8  2  in.  X.  H.  Bends 


4  4 

2  4 

6  2 

2  3 

I  3 


Standard  Bends, 
Ys.... 


X  2  in.  Standard  Ys.  .  . 

Standard  Ys 

X  2  in.  Standard  Ys. .  .  . 

X.  H.  T-Y 

X  2  in.  X.  H.  Ys 

X.  H.  Running  Traps 
"       Inverted  Ys  . .  . 


Disc. 


■5-5% 


List 

$0.35 

.65 

.80 

.40 


)0.5o 

•95 
I-I5 
.80 
.90 
1.50 
1 .40 
1 .90 

1 .  70 
1 .90 

2.  70 
2.75 
1.25 


$7.00 
32.50 
48.00 
10.00 


•  7.50 


$4.00 
5-70 
4.60 
1 .60 

5-40 
3.00 
1 .40 
5-70 
10.20 
3.80 
2.70 
5.50 
3-75 

'57-35 


Net 


$73-13 


$36.13 


366  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

As  seen  from  the  above,  the  discount  on  pipe  is  taken  on  the 
total  pipe  footing,  and  the  discount  on  fittings  is  taken  on  the  total 
fittings  footing.  This  is  a  much  less  laborious  undertaking  than  the 
taking  of  the  discount  on  each  pipe  or  fitting,  and  there  is  less  oppor- 
tunity of  error. 

The  discounts  that  are  given  on  certain  lines  of  plumbing  mate- 
rial are  often  very  complex,  such  a  discount  as  25 — 10 — 5%  being 
very  common.  It  will  be  of  interest  to  beginners  in  the  work  of 
estimating  to  understand  the  manner  in  which  such  discounts  are 
figured  out.  In  the  first  place,  if  the  above-mentioned  discount  can 
be  estimated  on  $1,  the  net  amount  remaining  after  taking  the  dis- 
count may  be  used  as  a  multiplier  for  that  particular  discount. 

Thus,  when  the  discount  mentioned  is  deducted  from  $1  it 
leaves  .6413.  Now,  if  a  discount  of  25 — 10 — ^%  is  to  be  apphed 
to  any  amount,  $50.35,  for  instance,  the  net  amount  derived  can  be 
found  by  multiplying  by  the  multiplier  .6413.  Thus,  $50.35  X 
.6413  =$32.29  net.  Let  us  see  how  the  net  multiplier  .6413  was 
obtained.  It  is  not  meant  that  the  three  separate  discounts,  25,  10, 
and  5%  are  to  be  added  together.  If  this  were  so,  the  full  amount, 
40%,  could  be  given. 

The  meaning  of  the  discount  25 — 10 — 5%  is  that  25%  is  to  be 
deducted  from  the  list  price,  and  from  the  remainder  10%  deducted, 
and  from  this  second  remainder  5%  deducted. 

This  would  be  a  tedious  method  to  apply,  and  instead  of  follow- 
ing this  practice,  the  use  of  a  table  of  net  multipliers  will  be  of  very 
great  value  in  the  saving  of  time  and  labor:  i.oo  X  -75  =  -75?  -75  X 
.90  =  .675,  .675  X  •95^-6413.  This  series  of  operations  gives  the 
multiplier  desired,  the  net  amount  each  time  being  multiplied  by  i.oo 
minus  the  next  discount,  the  multipliers  thus  being  1.00  —  .25  =  .75, 
I.oo  —  .10^.90,   I.oo  —  -05  =  .95. 

If  a  published  table  of  discounts  cannot  be  procured,  the  esti- 
mator may  make  one  to  include  whatever  range  of  discounts  may 
be  desired.  There  are  very  handy  tables  published,  which  show  dis- 
counts from  lo^o  up  to  85%.  These  tables  are  arranged  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner,  which  may  be  followed  or  modified  by  the  estimator 
in  working  out  his  own  table  of  discounts : 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING 


367 


Discount — Per  Cent                             Decim 

al  Equivalent                 Net  Amoi 

mt  or  Multiplier 

25 

25 

75 

25  —  2^ 

2688 

IZ'^Z 

25  — 2^  — 2>^ 

2870 

7130 

25—2^  —  5 

3053 

6947 

25        21^        71^ 

3236 

6764 

25-2^-10 

3419 

6581 

25—5 

2875 

7125 

25     5     21^ 

3053 

6947 

25     5     5 

3231 

6769 

25     5     1V2 

3409 

6591 

25—5—10 

3588 

6413 

25     7% 

3063 

6938 

25—75^—2^ 

Z^Z^ 

6764 

25— 7>^— 5 

3409 

6591 

25— 7^— 7>^ 

3583 

6417 

25     7>^      10 

3756 

6244 

25—10 

3250 

6750 

25 — 10 — 2^ 

3419 

6581 

25      10     5 

3588 

6413 

25—10—71^ 

3756 

6244 

25 — 10 — 10 

3925 

6075 

25— 10— 10— 5 

4229 

5771 

^1% 

275 

725 

2']%—2y^ 

2931 

7069 

27^^—25^—2^ 

3108 

6892 

The  amounts  in  the  column  of  decimal  equivalents  simply  show 
the  value  of  the  different  discounts  when  reduced  to  decimals.  A 
comparison  of  decimal  equivalents  will  show  that  in  some  cases  dif- 
ferent discounts  really  mean  the  same  thing. 

Thus  the  discount  25 — 25^ — 7^  is  of  just  the  same  value  as 
the  discount  25 — 7^4 — 2^/^. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  estimating,  no  attempt  will  be 
made  to  give  instructions  concerning  the  estimating  of  labor.  The 
author  appreciates  the  fact  that  this  information  will  be  sought  fully 
as  much  as  any  that  has  been  given,  but  an  attempt  at  advising  the 
figuring  of  certain  amounts  of  time  for  certain  amounts  of  work 
will  be  misleading,  and  no  doubt,  if  followed,  might  lead  to  trouble, 
especially  among  new  estimators  of  insufficient  experience  to  allow 


368  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

for  various  different  conditions.  For  instance,  the  methods  of  con- 
struction and  the  choice  of  material  varies  considerably  in  different 
parts  of  the  countr}^  and,  furthermore,  much  depends  upon  the  work- 
men themselves,  some  doing  a  far  greater  amount  of  v^ork  per  day 
than  others.  Labor  is  certainly  the  most  difficult  item  to  estimate, 
so  many  conditions  entering  into  the  matter.  In  many  towns  and 
cities  certain  classes  of  building  construction  are  very  general.  For 
instance,  in  certain  cities  three-flat  houses  may  be  universally  used, 
while  in  another  two-flat  and  six-flat  house?  may  be  the  rule.  The 
plumber  who  has  much  of  such  work  to  do  soon  learns  from  experi- 
ence the  amount  of  labor  necessary  to  figure,  almost  to  an  hour,  and, 
in  fact,  is  often  able  to  give  a  very  close  ofl^hand  estimate  of  the 
entire  work  on  such  a  house  after  a  glance  at  the  plans  and  specifi- 
cations has  assured  him  of  the  nature  and  number  of  fixtures.  The 
estimator  that  is  wise,  however,  is  not  usually  ready  to  make  a  bona 
fide  estimate  on  any  system  of  plumbing  without  first  going  over 
the  work  very  carefully,  for  it  needs  only  a  small  difference  here 
and  there  to  make  a  considerable  total  difference.  The  practice  of 
giving  ofifhand  final  estimates  is  always  to  be  condemned,  as  they 
may  often  lead  to  trouble  later.  Moreover,  such  estimates  are  un- 
likely to  take  into  account  any  change  in  prices  of  material. 

As  already  intimated,  however,  much  benefit  may  be  derived 
from  reference  to  lists  of  stock  and  labor  used  on  previous  work  of 
similar  style  and  character  to  that  which  is  to  be  estimated.  This  is 
especially  true  of  such  work  as  is  to  be  found  in  the  regulation  line 
of  dwellings,  flats,  and  like  buildings.  The  comparisons  should  not 
be  made,  by  the  way,  without  making  due  allowance  for  any  change 
in  prices  that  may  have  come  about  in  the  meantime. 

Many  plumbing  systems,  however,  cannot  be  expected  to  be  of 
a  similar  nature  to  other  work  previously  constructed  by  the  firm, 
in  which  case  there  is  little  benefit  to  be  derived  from  a  general  com- 
parison. Here  experience  and  good  judgment  must  be  called  into 
service. 

The  employer  or  estimator  who  is  properly  posted  in  his  busi- 
ness will  know  how  many  feet  of  soil  pipe  of  different  sizes  his  work- 
men will  be  able  to  run  in  a  day,  how  long  he  must  allow  for  the 
roughing-in  of  each  fixture  under  the  methods  followed  by  his  men 
and  under  the  ordinances  of  his  city,  and  how  long  it  will  take  to  do 
the  finishing  work  on  each  fixture.     By  thus  figuring  the  work  in 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING  369 

detail  the  total  should  be  arrived  at  with  a  sufficient  amount  of 
exactness. 

In  the  matter  of  estimating  labor,  especially,  there  is  no  one  who 
can  do  it  so  successfully  as  the  man  who  is  working  at  the  trade  and 
is  fully  acquainted  with  modern  methods  of  construction. 

If  a  systematic  account  is  to  be  kept  of  all  labor  and  material 
used  on  work,  it  is  necessary  to  use  some  form  of  time  card,  from 
which  an  exact  account  of  all  labor  and  stock  items  may  be  obtained. 
Such  a  form  is  shown,  in  connection  with  this  subject,  below. 

This  form  is  very  convenient,  although  some  employers  may 
prefer  a  different  style. 

The  item  of  labor  is  given  in  detail  on  the  front  of  the  card, 
and  stock  used  in  connection  with  that  particular  job,  No.  73,  may 
be  noted  on  the  reverse  side.  The  main  part  of  the  card  is  to  be 
handed  to  the  workman,  while  the  stub  is  torn  off  at  the  perforated 
line  and  retained  in  the  office  until  the  card  is  turned  in. 


370  MODERN    PLUMBING    ILLUSTRATED 

WM.  GREENE  &  CO. 
Given  to 


190 


No.     73 


WM.  GREENE  &  CO. 

No.     73 


Ordered  by  .  .  . 
Ordered  for.  .  . 
Street  and  No. 
Wants 


WORK    COMMENCED. 
Date Hour . 


COMPLETED. 

Date Hour 

Hour  work 


Made  out  by 
Charged  by .  . 


Hours  contract 


STOCK   USED. 


Front  Side.  Reverse  Side. 

TIME    AND    STOCK    CARD. 


SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ESTIMATING 


371 


As  previously  stated,  if  the  estimator  is  to  perform  his  work 
easily  and  intelligently,  he  must  keep  thoroughly  posted  on  the  cur- 
rent prices  of  material.  In  order  that  this  may  be  done  systemat- 
ically many  firms  now  keep  run  of  quotations  by  means  of  a  card 
system,  such  a  card  being  seen  below,  and  being  placed  in  the  S  sec- 
tion of  the  file.  All  soil-pipe  data  should  appear  on  this  card,  from 
which  will  be  known  the  latest  and  most  favorable  discount  on  that 
material.  In  carrying  out  such  quotations  it  is  well  to  use  a  private 
system  of  characters  to  represent  figures.  A  similar  card  should  be 
used  for  each  class  of  material,  as  lead  pipe,  traps,  etc. 


SOIL   PIPE. 

The  J.  B.  S.  Co.— N.  Y.  City— Jan.  i 25-10 

M.  &  B.  Co. — Boston — Feb.  2 30 

The  J.  B.  S.  Co.— N.  Y.  City— Mar.  3 25-10-5 

R.  M.  &  C.  Co.— Phila.— Mar.  15 25-10 


In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  for  many  reasons,  and  because 
of  many  varying  conditions,  the  subject  of  estimating  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  subjects  connected  with  the  plumbing  trade  upon  which 
to  give  instruction.     . 

To  a  certain  extent,  definite  information,  data,  and  advice  may 
safely  be  given,  but  beyond  that,  success  in  accurate  and  intelligent 
estimating  must  result  chiefly  from  a  knowledge  gained  by  experi- 
ence, from  the  application  of  good  judgment,  and  from  systematic 
methods,  the  latter  being  of  as  much  importance  as  any  other  factor. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Adjustable  slop-sink  trap,  49. 
Air  admitted  to  trap  seal,  75. 
Air  chambers,  use  of,  212. 
Air,  circulation  of,  in  sewers,  102. 

through  vent  system,  go. 
Air,  hfeless,  in  bath  rooms,  144. 
Air-lock  caused  by  double  trapping,  78. 

on  siphon  supply  systems,  317. 

prevented  by  fresh-air  inlet,  104. 
Air  pressure  for  smoke  test,  171. 
Air  pump  to  relieve  water  siphon,  317. 
Air  supply  for  plumbing  system,  84. 
Air  test,  167,  170. 

objections  to,  170. 

pressure  for,  170. 
Air  valve  on  hydraulic  ram,  312. 
Alum  for  sand  filtration,  220. 
Animal  charcoal  for  filters,  219. 
Apartment  buildings,  hot-water  supply  for, 
211. 

plumbing  for,  211,  217. 
Architects'  plans,  reading  and  use  of,  358. 
Architects'  scale,  use  of,  359. 
Areas,  drainage  of,  109. 
Artificial  draft  for  local  vents,  125. 
Asphaltum,  pipes  coated  with,  87. 
Atmospheric  pressure,  amount  of,  314. 
Attic  storage  tank,  287. 

supply  for,  287. 
Attic  tank,  238. 
Automatic  cellar  drainer,  112. 
Automatic  control  of  hot- water  tanks,  349. 
Automatic  flushing,  245. 

of  range  water  closets,  44. 

of  urinals,  257. 
Automatic  flush  tank,  action  of,  245. 

construction,  location  of,  etc.,  246. 
Automatic    flush    tanks    for    public    toilet 

rooms,  234. 
Automatic  sewage  ejector,  277,  278. 

action  of,  278. 

advantages  of,  280. 

for  large  work,  280. 

for  marine  work,  282. 


Automatic  sewage  ejector,  for  public  sew- 
age, 281. 

proper  size  of,  281. 
Automatic  sewage  lift,  277,  278. 

action  of,  278. 

advantages  of,  280. 

for  large  work,  280. 

for  marine  work,  282. 

for  public  sewage,  281. 

proper  size  of,  281. 

venting  of,  279. 
Automatic  sewage  siphons,  305. 

action  of,  306. 

use  of,  305. 
Automatic  siphon  for  range  water  closets, 

44. 
Automatic  sump  tank,  280. 

action  of,  280. 
Automatic  tank  regulators,  211. 
Automatically    flushed    urinals    and    slop 
sinks,  246. 


B 


Back  pressure  on  trap  seals,  74. 
Back  pressure,  relief  of,  84. 
Backs  for  urinals,  50. 
Back-water  valve,  use  of,  iii. 
Bacteria,  action  of,  in  filtration,  219. 

action  of,  in  septic  tank,  299. 

action  of,  on  sewage,  304. 

in  soil,  294. 
Ball-cock  floats,  40. 
Ball-cocks,  39. 

requirements  of,  40. 
Bar  sinks,  connection  of,  66. 
Basins  for  lavatories,  sizes  of,  24. 
Baskets,  wire,  for  roof  pipes,  91. 
Bath  establishments,  construction  of  floors 
and  walls  of,  237. 

plumbing  for,  237. 
Bath-room  connections,  131,  137,  138,  143, 

149. 
Bath-room  fixtures,  139,  150. 
Bath  rooms,  131,  137,  143,  149. 

cleanliness  of,  131. 


375 


376 


INDEX 


Bath  rooms,  lighting  of,  144. 

tihng  of,  139. 

ventilation  of,  144. 
Bath  traps,  77. 

cleanouts  for,  31,  138. 
Bath  tub,  31. 

connections  for,  31. 

construction  of,  31. 

drum  trap  for,  31,  81,  149. 

sizes  of,  31. 

to  enamel,  31. 

trimmings  for,  32. 
Bedfordshire  lip  urinal,  50. 
Bending  brass  pipe,  202. 
Bends  in  fresh-air  inlet,  104. 
Bends,  quarter,  for  circuit  vents,  188. 

for  deep-seal  traps,  109. 

use  of,  89. 
Bidet,  51. 

connections  for,  51, 

mixer  for,  51. 

suppHes  for,  51. 
Bi-transit  waste,  32. 
Blind  vent,  157. 
Blow-off  from  boilers,  66. 
Boilers,  double,  337. 

connections  for,  338. 

construction  of,  337. 

cut-offs  for,  338. 

drainage  of,  338. 

expansion  pipes  on,  337. 

purpose  of,  337. 

supply  for,  337. 

where  used,  337. 
Boilers,    large    horizontal,    supporting    of, 

343- 
Boilers,  large  horizontal,  use  of,  343. 
Boilers,   hot-water,    automatic    control   of, 

349;  . 

capacities  of,  344. 

heating  of  by  steam,  343. 

proper  size  of,  213,  343. 

steam  coils  for,  344. 
Boilers,  range,  for  residences,  211. 

heating  of,  328. 

materials  for,  192,  211. 

size  of,  211. 
Bone-black  for  filtering  purposes,  219. 
Bowls  for  lavatories,  sizes  of,  24. 

patent  overflow,  24. 
Branch  vents,  84. 

running  of,  184. 
Brass  and  cast-iron  pipe  connections,  88. 
Brass  and  wrought-iron  pipe  connections, 


Brass  cleanouts,  162. 
Brass  drainage  fittings,  202. 
Brass  ferrules,  use  of,  88. 

use  of,  on  Durham  system,  272. 

weights  and  sizes  of,  272. 
Brass  flap,  valve,  use  of,  62. 
Brass  floor  flange,  use  of,  119. 
Brass  for  drainage  purposes,  274. 
Brass  pipe,  joints  on,  202. 

to  bend,  202. 

use  of,  92,  192. 

use  of,  on  waste  and  vent  work,  201. 

weights  of,  202. 
Brass  pipe  vises,  use  of,  202. 
Brass  pipe  wrenches,  use  of,  202. 
Brass  soldering  nipples,  weights  and  sizes 

of,  272. 
Brass  work,  estimating  of,  363. 

of  poor  quality,  158. 
Brewery  drainage,  62. 
Brick  piers  to  support  piping,  95. 
By-pass,  77,  157. 


Capillary  action  on  trap  seals,  74. 

Caps  for  roof  pipes,  91. 

Cast  iron,  action  of  electrolysis  on,  267. 

for  drainage  purposes,  274. 
Cast-iron  and  brass  pipe  connections,  88. 
Cast-iron  and  lead  pipe  connections,  88. 
Cast-iron    and    wrought-iron  pipe  connec- 
tions, 88. 
Cast-iron  pipe,  87. 

coating  of,  87,  162. 

connection  of  wrought-iron  pipe  into, 
262. 

for  house  sewer,  197. 

for  wastes,  137. 

joints  on,  87. 

life  of,  264,  265. 

supporting  of,  95. 

underground,  162. 

use  of,  92. 

weights  of,  87. 
Cast-iron  sinks,  sizes  of,  17,  18. 
Catch  basin,  cellar,  trap  for,  iii. 

construction  of,  241. 

for  cellar  drain,  iii. 

for  kitchen  waste,  56,  57. 

for  rain  water,  327. 

for  refrigerator  rooms,  etc.,  62. 

for  stable  waste,  241. 

for  subsoil  drainage,  iii. 


INDEX 


377 


Caulked  joints,  87. 

weights  of,  88,  361. 
Caulking  lead,  estimating  of,  360. 
Cellar  bottom,  grading  of,  iii. 

gutters  in,  iii. 
Cellar  drain,  no. 

catch  basin  for,  in. 

into  house  drain,  196. 

trap  for,  in. 
Cellar  drainage,  disposal  of,  112. 
Cellar  drainer,  112. 

action  of,  112. 

amount  of  water  raised  by,  112. 

height  to  which  it  will  raise,  112. 

location  of,  112. 

supply  pipes  for,  112. 

water  pressure  for,  112. 
Cements  for  marble,  24. 

for  slate  and  soapstone,  19. 
CentraHzing  of  plumbing,  143. 
Centrifugal  pump  for  raising  sewage,  277. 
Cesspools,  293. 

banking  and  turfing  of,  295. 

combination  tight  and  leeching,  293, 

295- 
connected  to  sewers,  293. 

displaced  by  septic  tanks,  299. 

forms  of,  293. 

fresh-air  inlet  of,  294. 

leeching,  293,  294. 

location  of,  289,  294. 

manner  of  entering  drains  into,  296. 

prohibited  for  tenement  houses,  etc., 
208. 

rain  water  into,  295. 

supporting  vents  from,  96. 

tight,  293,  294. 

trapping  of,  294. 

use  of,  in  cities,  296. 

venting  of,  285,  294. 
Change  in  direction  of  pipes,  cleanouts  at, 

164. 
Charcoal,  animal,  for  filters,  219. 
Child's  bath,  32. 

connections  of,  32. 
Chilling  of  main  trap  seal,  104. 
Chimney  connections  of  local  vents,   127, 

_i56_. 
Circuit  vents,  187. 

construction  of,  187. 

for  line  of  water  closets,  242. 

for  public  toilet  rooms,  187,  234. 

quarter  bends  on,  188. 
Circulation  of  air  in  sewers,  102. 

through  vent  system,  90. 


Circulation  of  hot  water,  328. 
Circulation  work,  advantages  of,  213. 
Cistern  filters,  325. 

action  of,  326,  327. 

catch  basin  for,  327. 

construction  of,  326,  327. 
Cisterns,  for  storing  rain  water,  288. 

size  of,  289. 
Cleanout  cover,  trap  vent  through,  82. 
Cleanout  joints,  163. 
Cleanout  screws,  material  of,  162. 
Cleanouts,  162. 

brass,  162. 

depending  on  putty  joints,  156. 

end,  162,  163. 

for  traps,  77. 

gaskets  for,  163. 

ground-joint,  163. 

iron  body,  162. 

on  bath  traps,  31,  77,  138. 

on  drainage  pipes,  89. 

on  drum  traps,  164. 

on  horse  stall  connections,  69. 

on  house  drain,  162. 

on  local  vent  filue  connection,  127. 

on  main  trap,  104,  105,  162,  163. 

on  rain  leaders,  163. 

on  refrigerator  wastes,  65. 

on  sink  waste,  55. 

on  slop  sinks,  49. 

on  traps,  location  of,  164. 

on  traps  under  floors,  77. 

on  vents,  76,  164. 

size  of,  163. 

submerged,  82,  83,  164. 

threads  for,  163. 
Coating  of  cast-iron  pipe,  87. 
Coils,  steam,  for  hot-water  boilers,  344. 
Cold-air  box,   distance    of    fresh-air    inlet 

from,  104. 
Combination  cocks,  7,t,. 
Combination  sink  and  wash  tray,  19. 
Comfort  stations,  ventilation  of,  127. 
Compressed  air  for  sewage  ejectors,  278. 
Compression  system,  220. 
Compression  work,  ;^;^. 

advantages  of,  212. 
Concealed  piping,  testing  of,  167. 
Condensation  in  vent  pipes,  84,  184. 

care  of,  89. 

drainage  of,  90. 
Condensing  tank,  use  of,  66. 
Contact  filter  beds,  302,  305. 
Contagion  carried  by  local  vents,  125. 
Continuous  venting,  76,  175. 


378 


INDEX 


Continuous    venting,    advantages   of,    175, 
180. 

economy  of,  180,  183. 

for  apartment  houses,  179. 

for  groups  of  fixtures,  176. 

for  lines  of  lavatories,  233. 

for  two-floor  work,  179. 

for  two  lines  of  fixtures,  183. 

from  special  fittings,  201. 

of  lavatories,  23,  176. 

of  lines  of  fixtures,  271. 

of  lines  of  urinals,  256. 

of  S  trap,  81,  83. 

of  water  closets,  187. 
Corrosion  of  drainage  pipes,  264. 

vent  pipes,  264. 
Cost,  estimating  of,  364. 
Cottage  house,  plumbing  for,  191. 
Country  house,  water  supply  for,  325. 

hot-water  supply  for,  328. 
Country  plumbing,  285. 
Courts,  etc.,  of  tenement  houses,  drainage 

of,  208. 
Courtyards,  drainage  of,  109. 
Cowls  for  roof  pipes,  91. 
Crazing  of  water  closets,  119. 
Cup  joints,  88. 
Cut-offs  for  double  boilers,  338. 

D 

Dead  end,  155. 

Deep-seal  trap,  use  of,  109. 

for  rain  leaders,  207. 
Deflector  for  grease  trap,  56. 
Direct-pressure  ball-cocks,  40. 
Discharge  chamber  of  the  septic  tank,  301. 
Discounts  on  plumbing  goods,  364. 

table  of,  367. 
Domestic  filter,  construction  of,  218. 
Double-acting  force  pump,  315. 
Double-acting  hydraulic  ram,  314,  325. 
Double  apartment  buildings,  plumbing  for, 
217. 

continuous  venting  for,  179. 
Double  boilers,  337. 

connections  for,  338. 

construction  of,  337. 

cut-offs  for,  338. 

drainage  of,  338. 

expansion  pipes  on,  337. 

purpose  of,  337. 

supply  for,  337. 

where  used,  337. 
Double  fittings,  venting  from,  223. 
Double  hubs,  use  of,  89. 


Double-hub  pipe,  use  of,  89. 
Double  testing  plug,  169. 
Double  trapping,  78,  in,  156. 
Double  T-Y,  use  of,  89. 
Draft  for  local  vents,  125. 
Drain  tile  inside  cellar,  156. 

for  subsoil  drains,  in. 
Drainage  system,  separate,  for  each  house, 

103. 
Drainer,  cellar,  112. 
Draw-offs,  drainage  from,  66. 
Drinking  fountains,  228. 

in  toilet  rooms,  228. 
Drip  pan  for  attic  storage  tank,  288. 

for  refrigerator,  61. 
Drip  sink  for  refrigerator,  61. 
Drips  from  boilers,  66. 
Driven  wells,  remarks  on,  316. 

system  of,  315. 
Drum  trap,  81. 

cleanouts  on,  164. 

connections  for,  81. 

for  bath  tub,  31,  81,  149. 

for  country  plumbing,  285. 

for  laundry  tubs,  19,  82. 

for  refrigerator,  61. 

obstructions  in,  82,  83. 

serving  two  or  more  fixtures,  82. 

siphonage  of,  81. 

stoppage  of,  82. 

unvented,  81. 

vent  of,  through  cleanout  cover,  82. 
Durham  system,  261. 

advantage  of,  97,  262. 

compared  with  common  system,  261. 

defects  of,  262,  263,  264,  265. 

fittings  for,  261,  262. 

floor  flange  for,  120. 

for  greenhouses,  263. 

joints  on,  261,  262. 

urinals  on,  257. 

use  of  soldering  nipples  and  brass 
ferrules  on,  272. 

used  in  high  buildings,  263. 

water-closet    floor   connections    for, 
271,  272. 

work  of,  271. 


Earthenware  pipe  for  drains,  no. 
for  house  sewer,  197. 
inside  cellar,  156. 
joints  on,  197. 
prohibition  of,  196. 


INDEX 


379 


Ejector,  automatic  sewage,  277,  278. 

action  of,  278. 

advantages  of,  280. 

for  large  work,  280. 

for  marine  work,  282. 

for  public  sewage,  281. 

proper  size  of,  281. 

venting  of,  279. 
Electricity,  thawing  of  pipes  by,  331. 
Electrolysis,  action  of,  266. 

cause  of,  266. 

destruction  of  pipes  by,  265. 

general  remarks  on,  268. 

of  cast  iron,  267. 

remedy  for,  267. 
Elevators,  hydraulic,  drainage  from,  66. 
Enamelled  lavatories,  23. 
EnameUing  for  bath  tub,  31. 
End  cleanouts,  162,  163. 
Engine  house,  plumbing  for,  241. 

floor  drains  for,  241. 
Estimate  sheet,  form  of,  355. 

remarks  on,  358. 
Estimating  of  brass  work,  363. 

caulking  lead,  360. 

cost,  364. 

fixtures  and  trimmings,  364. 

gas  piping,  363. 

labor,  367. 

lead  pipe,  362. 

marble  and  slate,  364. 

miscellaneous  items,  364. 

pipe  and  fittings,  359. 

plumbing  construction,  353. 

supply  pipe,  363.  , 

wiping  solder,  362. 
Evaporation  decreased  by  continuous  vent- 
ing, 176. 

of  rain  lea^der  trap  seals,  207. 

of  trap  seals,  74,  77,  no. 
Excavations,  drainage  of,  112. 
Exhaust  steam  for  heating  hot-water  tanks, 

343- 
Exhausts,  drainage  connections  of,  66. 
Expansion  pipes  on  double  boilers,  337. 
Exposed  surfaces  of  water  closets,  115. 
Exterior  lighting  desirable,  144. 
Extra  heavy  soil  pipe,  87. 


Factories,  automatic  flushing  for,  245. 
regulation  of  plumbing  in,  208. 
waste  and  soil  lines  for,  242. 


Factory  lavatories,  247. 

plumbing,  241. 

toilet  rooms,  241. 

toilet  rooms,  floors  for,  242. 

toilet  rooms,  lighting  of,  242. 

toilet  rooms,  ventilation  of,  241,  242. 

wash  sinks,  242,  247. 
Fans,  ventilation  by  use  of,  128,  227. 
Ferrule  connections  included  in  roughing, 
■     161. 
Ferrules,  brass,  use  of,  88. 

weights  and  sizes  of,  272. 
Filter  beds,  contact,  302,  305. 

primary,  302,  305. 
Filtered  water  supply,  217. 

for  swimming  pool,  238. 

open  gravity  tank  for,  220. 

overhead  tank  for,  220. 

pressure  tank  for,  220. 

storage  of,  220. 
Filtering  materials,  219. 
Filters,  animal  charcoal  for,  219. 

care  of,  218. 

cleansing  of,  219. 

for  hotels,  restaurants,  hospitals,  etc., 
218. 

for  rain  water,  289. 

gravity,  use  of,  218. 

pressure,  construction  of,  219. 

pressure,  use  of,  218. 
Filters,  cistern,  325. 

action  of,  326,  327. 

construction  of,  326,  327. 
Filtration  of  water,  217. 

for  commercial  purposes,  217. 

of  sewage,  304. 

through  the  soil,  294. 

two  forms  of,  217. 
Final  test,  the,  167. 
First  test,  the,  167. 
Fittings,  brass  drainage,  202. 

estimating  of,  359. 

extra,  allowance  of,  360. 

for  Durham  system,  261. 

special,  for  underground  sewage  pur- 
ification systems,  304. 
Fittings,  special  waste  and  vent,  38,  143, 
201. 

venting  from,  223. 
Fixture  vents,  requirements  of,  84,  184. 
Fixture  wastes,  long,  162. 
Fixtures,  estimating  of,  364. 

for  bath  rooms,  139,  150. 

groups  of,  continuous  vents  for,  176. 

in  cellar,  201. 


38o 


INDEX 


Fixtures,  porcelain,  use  of,  139. 

Flanges,  roof,  91. 

Flap  valve,  use  of,  62,  65. 

Flat   buildings,    refrigerator   drainage   for, 

205. 
Flexible  wooden  sink  mat,  18. 
Floats  for  bail-cocks,  40. 
Floor  connections  for  Durham  system,  271, 
272. 

for  water  closets,  37,  119. 

putty,  119. 
Floor  drains  for  bath  estabhshments,  237. 

for  engine  house,  241. 

for   ice   houses,   refrigerator   rooms, 
etc.,  62. 

for  laundries,  etc.,  62. 

for  public  toilet  rooms,  227. 

for  stables,  241. 

flushing  of,  109. 

flushing  rim,  237. 

into  house  drain,  196. 

into  surface  sewer,  no. 

size  of,  109. 

trapping  of,  no. 

traps  for,  109. 
Floor  flange,  brass,  use  of,  119. 

for  Durham  system,  120. 
Floor  slabs  for  urinals,  256. 

setting  of,  33. 
Floor  timbers,  cutting  of,  133. 
Floors  for  factory  toilet  rooms,  242. 

public  toilet  rooms,  227. 
Flues,  local  vent  connections  into,  127. 
Flush  pipe  for  water  closet,  37. 
Flush  tank,  automatic,  action  of,  245. 

size,  construction,  location,  etc.,  246. 
Flush  tanks,  concealing  of,  234. 

for  slop  sink,  50. 

for  water  closet,  37. 

for    water    closets    of    public    toilet 
rooms,  234. 
Flushing,  automatic,  245. 
Flushing  of  floor  drains,  109. 

of  range  water  closets,  44. 

of  water  closets,  115. 
Flushing-rim  floor  drains,  109,  237. 

slop  sinks,  49. 

type  of  fixtures  for  public  toilet  rooms, 

234- 
urinals,  50,  256. 
water  closets,  etc.,  119. 
Flushing  valves,  37. 
concealed,  234. 
for  slop  sinks,  43,  251. 
for  urinals,  43,  251,  252,  257. 


Flushing  valves  for  water  closets,  43,  251. 

necessary  pressure  for,  251. 

operation  of,  251. 

sizes  of  connections  for,  251 

storage  tanks  for,  251,  252. 

under  direct  pressure,  251. 

under  tank  pressure,  251. 

use  of,  251. 
Foot  bath,  32. 

connections  of,  32. 
Force  pump,  use  of  the,  287. 

double-acting,  315. 
Foul-air  ducts  for  public  toilet  rooms,  227. 
Freezing  of  main  trap  seal,  104. 

protection  of  pipes  against,  321. 
Fresh-air  ducts  for  public  toilet  rooms,  227. 
Fresh-air  inlet,  84,  104. 

bends  in,  104. 

carried  underground,  105. 

connection  of,  104. 

distance  from  windows,  etc.,  104. 

errors  in,  157. 

for  cesspool  trap,  294. 

for  sewage  tank,  278. 

not  for  drainage,  104. 

of  underground  trap,  106. 

opening  of,  104. 

protection  of  end  of,  104. 

purpose  of,  104. 

should  not  be  omitted,  155. 

size  of,  105. 

through  foundation,  105. 
Frost  in  roof  pipes,  91. 
Frost-proof  water  closets,  70. 
Frozen  water  pipes  thawed  by  electricity, 

331- 
Fuller  work,  33,  212. 


G 


Gaskets  for  cleanouts,  163. 

Gas  mains  destroyed  by  electrolysis,  265. 

Gas  piping,  estimating  of,  363. 

Gas,  sewer,  in  plumbing  system,  loi. 

Glass  floats,  40. 

Grading  of  cellar  bottom,  in. 

of  pipes,  88. 
Gravity  filters,  construction  of,  218. 

use  of,  2t8. 
Gravity  water  supply,  286. 
Grease,  collection  of,  in  pipes,  57. 

collection  of,  in  main  trap,  104. 

entering  sinks,  55. 

in  sewage,  55. 


INDEX 


381 


Grease  traps,  55. 

deflector  for,  56. 

material  for,  56. 

underground,  56. 

water  jacket  for,  56. 
Greenhouses,  Durham  system  for,  263. 
Grit  chamber  of  septic  tank,  299. 
Ground-joint  cleanouts,  163. 
Groups  of  fixtures,   continuous   vents  for, 

176. 
Gutter  for  shower  bath,   construction  of, 

237; 

for  urinals,  256. 

in  cellar  bottom,  iii. 


H 


Hair-felt  to  protect  pipes  from  freezing,  321. 
Hangers,  sizes  of,  96. 
Headers,  construction  of,  339. 

use  of,  on  supply  work,  214,  339. 

use  of,  95. 
Heated  air,  action  of,  123,  126. 
Heater,  the  P.  P.,  343. 
Heating  systems,  drainage  from,  66. 
Hoar  frost  in  roof  pipes,  91. 
Hooks,  use  of,  95. 
Hoppers,  long,  use  of,  70. 
Horizontal  boilers,  large,  supporting  of,  343. 

use  of,  343. 
Horizontal  piping,  cleanouts  on,  163. 
Horse  stall,  plumbing  of,  69. 
Horse  trough,  connections  for,  70. 

construction  of,  70. 
Hotel  sink,  55. 

Hot  water,  circulation  of,  328. 
Hot-water  boilers,  automatic  control  of,  349. 

capacities  of,  344. 

proper  size  of,  343. 

steam  coils  for,  344. 
Hot-water  heating  systems,  drainage  of,  66. 
Hot-water  supply  for  apartment  buildings, 
211. 

country  house,  287,  328. 

large  buildings,  343,  344- 

ofhce  buildings,  211. 
Hot-water  tanks,  automatic  control  of,  349. 

size  of,  213. 
House  drain,  195. 

cleanouts  on,  162. 

connections  into,  106,  196. 

main  stack  at  end  of,  191. 

material  for,  196. 

overhead,  112. 


House  drain,  running  of,  195,  201. 

size  of  pipe  for,  201. 
House  sewer,  195. 

cast-iron  pipe  for,  197. 

connections  into  public  sewer,  19J 

extent  of,  197. 

material  for,  197. 

size  of  pipe  for,  201. 
House  tank,  use  of,  213. 
House  trap,  10 1. 

advantages  of,  103,  no. 

cleanouts  on,  104,  105,  162,  163. 

connection  at,  196. 

for  tenement  houses,  103. 

freezing  of,  104. 

in  large  cities,  103. 

object  of,  10 1. 

objections  to,  102. 

on  country  systems,  286. 

outside  of  foundation,  106. 

setting  of,  105. 

stoppage  of,  104. 
Hubs,  double,  use  of,  89. 
Hydraulic  elevators,  drainage  from,  66. 
Hydraulic  engines,  action  of,  313. 

waste  of  water  by,  313. 

work  done  by,  313. 
Hydraulic  ram,  double-acting,  314,  325. 
Hydraulic  rams,  311. 

air  valve  on,  312. 

connections  for,  311. 

drive  pipe  of,  313. 

force  pipe  from,  313. 

head  of  supply  to,  312,  313. 

operation  of,  311. 

source  of  supply  for,  311. 

use  of,  287. 

waste  of  water  by,  313. 

waste  valve  of,  312. 

work  done  by,  313. 


Ice  boxes,  connections  for,  62. 
Ice  houses,  drainage  of,  62. 
Increase  of  pipes  through  roof,  90,  155. 
Increasers,  forms  of,  90. 

use  of,  91. 
Indirect-pressure  ball-cocks,  40. 
Infection  through  untrapped  plumbing  sys- 
tem, 103. 
Inspection  of  the  plumbing  system,  172. 
Internal  partitions  in  traps,  74. 
Iron-body  cleanouts,  162. 


382 


INDEX 


J 


Jacket,  water,  for  grease  trap,  56. 
Joints,  caulked,  weights  of,  88. 

cup,  88. 

on  cast-iron  pipe,  87. 

on  local  vent  pipes,  126. 

overcast,  88. 

rust,  88. 


K 


Keyboard,  use  of,  214. 
Kitchen  sinks,  17. 

connections  for,  17. 

construction  of,  17,  18. 

for  hotels,  etc.,  17. 

hot- water  supply  for,  17. 

setting  of,  17,  18. 

sizes  of,  17. 

waste  for,  161. 
Kitchen  waste,  catch  basin  for,  56. 


Labor,  estimating  of,  367. 
Laundry  drainage,  62. 
Laundry  tubs,  18. 

connections  for,  ig. 

construction  of,  18. 

drum  trap  for,  19,  82. 

in  cellars,  205. 
Lavatories,  23. 

connections  for,  23. 

connections  for  group  of,  271. 

construction  of,  23. 

continuous  venting  of,  23,  176. 

double  batteries  of,  229,  233. 

for  factories,  247. 

lines  of,  continuous  venting  for,  233. 

marble  slabs  for,  24. 

shower  for,  32. 

S  trap  for,  133. 

trimmings  for,  32. 
Lavatory  bowls,  setting  of,  24. 

sizes  of,  24. 
Lead  and  cast-iron  pipe  connections,  88. 
Lead  bend,  connections  into,  131,  156. 

connection  of,  37. 
Lead,  connections  without  use  of,  149. 

caulking,  estimating  of,  360. 

plumbing  without  use  of,  271. 

sheet,  weights  of,  192. 

when  not  to  be  used  as  waste,  137. 


Lead  joints,  caulked,  87. 

extra,  allowance  for,  88. 

weights  of,  361. 
Lead  pipe,  decrease  in  use  of,  184. 

estimating  of,  362. 

light  weights  of  used,  158. 

objections  to,  137. 

sags  in,  162. 

supporting  of,  162. 

use  of,  92. 

use  of,  on  small  work,  191. 

weights  of,  192,  362. 
Lead  supply  pipe,  weights  of,  192. 
Lead  waste  pipes,  advantages  of,  273. 

objections  to,  273. 

weights  of,  192. 
Lead  work,  displacing  of,  137. 

light  material  used  on,  192. 
Leader  pipes,  cleanouts  on,  163. 

connections  of,  196. 

outside  of  house,  106. 

size  of,  198. 
Lift-force  pump,   action  and  construction 

of,  315- 
Lift  pump,  action  and  construction  of,  315. 
Lifts,  automatic  sewage,  277,  278. 

action  of,  278. 

advantages  of,  280. 

for  large  work,  280. 

for  marine  work,  282. 

for  public  sewage,  281. 

proper  size  of,  281. 

venting  of,  279. 
Lifts,  water,  drainage  from,  66. 
Lighting,  exterior,  desirable,  144. 

of  bath  room,  144. 

of  factory  toilet  rooms,  242. 

of  toilet  rooms,  228. 
Lip  urinal,  50,  256. 

flushing  rim  for,  119. 
Live  steam  for  heating  hot-water  tanks,  343. 
Local  vents,  83,  123. 

action  of,  123,  124. 

chimney  connections  of,  127. 

connections  of,  with  flues,  127. 

contagion  carried  by,  125. 

draft  for,  125. 

for  bath  rooms,  144. 

for  range  water  closets,  45. 

for  slop  sinks,  49. 

for  urinals,  255. 

grading  of,  155. 

joints  on,  126. 

material  for,  126. 

pitch  of,  126. 


INDEX 


383 


Local  vents,  poor  work  on,  156,  157. 

purpose  of,  123. 

required  in  unlighted  and  unventi- 
lated  toilet  rooms,  124. 

running  of,  126. 

sizes  of,  125. 

special,  on  water  closet,  234. 

two  systems  of,  125. 

use  of,  in  public  toilet  rooms,  246. 
Local  vents,  main,  area  of,  127. 

sizes  of,  126. 
Lodging  houses,  regulation  of  plumbing  in, 

207. 
Long  hoppers,  use  of,  70. 
Loop  vents,  188. 

for  lines  of  water  closets,  242. 

sizes  of,  188. 
Low-down  tank,  43. 
Low-down  water  closet,  43. 

siphon  form  for,  118. 
Low-pressure  steam-heating  systems,  drain- 
age from,  66. 


M 


Main  local  vents,  area  of,  127. 
Main  soil  pipe,  vent  connection  into,  90. 
Main  stack  at  end  of  house  drain,  191. 
Main  traps,  10 1. 

advantages  of,  103,  no. 

cleanouts  on,  104,  105,  162,  163. 

connection  at,  196. 

for  tenement  houses,  103. 

freezing  of,  104. 

in  large  cities,  103. 

object  of,  10 1. 

objections  to,  102. 

on  country  systems,  286. 

outside  of  foundation,  106. 

setting  of,  105. 

stoppage  of,  104. 

use  of  two,  197. 
Main  vents,  84. 

connections  of,  90,  184. 

in  high  buildings,  223. 

into  stack,  155. 

not  required,  138. 

undesirable  connection  of,  91. 
Main  waste  pipe,  vent  connection  into,  90. 
Manholes,  purpose  of,  102. 
Manure  to  protect  pipes  from  freezing,  321. 
Marble  cements,  24. 
Marble,  cleaning  of,  145. 

decrease  in  use  of,  139. 

estimating  of,  364. 


Marble,  for  lavatories,  24. 
Marble  floor  slabs,  setting  of,  33. 
Marble  slabs  for  lavatories,  24. 

table  of  contents  of,  25. 
Mechanical  devices  in  water  closets,  115. 

for  vents,  175. 
Mechanical  seals  in  traps,  74. 
Mechanical  ventilation,  127. 
Mixer  for  bidet,  51. 
Momentum  affects  trap  seal,  74. 

N 

Nickel-plated  supphes,  ;^;^, 

Non-siphonable  traps,  73. 

use  of,  149. 


O 


Oakum,  amount  of,  for  caulked  joints,  361. 

estimating  of,  361. 
Obstructions  in  drum  traps,  82,  83. 
Odors  in  toilet  rooms,  24. 
Office  buildings,  hot-water  supply  for,  211. 

plumbing  for,  223. 
Offset  water  closets,  use  of,  118. 
Offsets  in  stacks,  89. 
Oil  of  peppermint  for  testing,  171. 
Open  gravity  tank,  220. 
Open  plumbing,  advantages  of,  119,  131. 
Overcast  joints,  88. 
Overflows,  cleaning  of,  145. 

connection  of,  77. 

for  swimming  pools,  238. 

from  attic  tanks,  287. 

from  tanks,  62. 
Overhead  house  drain,    112. 

piping,  support  of,  95. 

tank,  use  of,  220. 


Painting  of  soil  pipe,  145. 

Pan  water  closet,  objections  to,  115. 

Pantry  sink,  25. 

connections  for,  25. 

construction  of,  25. 

setting  of,  25. 
Partitions  for  stalls  in  toilet  rooms,  228. 

for  toilet  rooms,  construction  of,  208. 

for  urinals,  50. 
Patent  overflow  bowl,  24. 
Paved  courts,  drainage  of,  109. 
Pedestal  urinal,  257. 


384 


INDEX 


Peppermint,  mixture  of,  for  testing,  171. 
Peppermint  test,  167. 

objections  to,  171. 
Pipe  connections,  various,  88. 
Pipe-supporting  fittings,  95. 
Pipes,  pitch  of  drainage  and  vent,  88. 

supported  by  piers,  95. 

thawing  of,  by  electricity,  331. 

to  protect  against  frost,  321. 
Piston  pumps  for  raising  sewage,  278. 
Pitch  of  pipes,  88. 

Plans,  architects',  reading  and  use  of,  358. 
Plugs,  double- testing,  169. 

testing,  168. 
Plumbing,  inspection  of,  172. 

testing  of,  167. 
Plunge  bath,  change  of  water  in,  237. 

connections  for,  237. 

construction  of,  237. 

filtered  water  for,  238. 
Plunger  water  closets,  objections  to,  115. 
Pneumatic  water  supply,  309. 

advantages  of,  310. 

appHcations  of,  309,  310. 

operation  of,  309. 

pressure  from,  310. 

tanks  for,  309,  310. 
Poor  practices  in  plumbing,  155. 
Porcelain,  cleaning  of,  145. 

fixtures,  use  of,  139,  150. 

for  filtering  purposes,  219. 

lavatories,  23. 

urinals,  256. 
Practices,  poor,  in  plumbing,  155. 
Pressure  filters,  construction  of,  219. 

use  of,  218. 
Pressure  for  air  test,  170. 

for  smoke  test,  171. 

for  water  test,  169. 
Pressure  supply  system,  213. 
Pressures,  water,  table  of,  169. 
Prices  of  plumbing  material,  371. 
Primary  filter  beds,  302,  305. 
Profit  on  plumbing  construction,  354. 
Provisions,  drainage  of  rooms  for  storage 

of,  62. 
Public  toilet  rooms,  automatic  flushing  for, 

245- 
circuit  vents  for,  187,  234. 
concealed  work  in,  233. 
drinking  fountains  in,  228. 
floor  drains  for,  227. 
floors  of,  227. 
flush  tanks  in,  234. 
flushing-rim  type  of  fixtures  for,  234. 


Public  toilet  rooms,  lavatories  for,  229. 

lighting  of,  228. 

local  vent  in,  246. 

partitions  in,  228. 

plumbing  for,  227,  233. 

range  water  closets  in,  228. 

urinals  for,  255. 

ventilation  of,  127,  227. 

water  closets  for,  234. 
Pumping  by  windmill,  318. 
Pumps,  314. 

centrifugal,  for  raising  sewage,    277, 
278. 

double-acting  force,  315. 

for  lifting  sewage,  277. 

lift,  action  and  construction  of,  315. 

lift-force,  action  and  construction  of, 

operated  by  windmills,  318. 
piston,  for  raising  sewage,  278. 
suction,  action  of,  314. 
Putty  floor  connections,  119. 


Q 


Quarter  bends  for  deep-seal  traps,  109. 

on  circuit  vents,  188. 

use  of,  89. 
Quick-closing  work,  disadvantages  of,  212. 


R 


Rain  leaders,  205. 

cleanouts  on,  163. 

connected   to   house   drain,    advan- 
tages of,  207. 

connections  for,  196. 

deep-seal  traps  for,  207. 

evaporation  of  traps  on,  207. 

exposed,  206. 

how  run,  206. 

inside,  206. 

into  street  gutters,  206. 

into  surface  house  drain,  206. 

into  surface  sewer,  no. 

material  for,  206. 

outside  of  house,  106. 

size  of,  198,  205,  206. 

two  or  more  connected  together,  206. 

use  of  traps  on,  205. 
Rain  water,  catch  basin  for,  327. 

filtering  of,  289. 

impurities  in,  325. 

into  cesspools,  295. 


INDEX 


585 


Rain  water,  purification  of,  326. 

storage  of,  288,  325,  327. 

storage  tanks  for,  328. 
Rain-water  filters,  action  of,  326,  327. 

construction  of,  326,  327. 
Rain-water  separators,  289. 
Ram  pit,  waste  from,  313. 
Rams,  hydraulic,  311. 

air  valve  on,  312. 

connections  for,  311. 

double-acting,  314,  325. 

drive  pipe  of,  313. 

force  pipe  from,  313. 

head  of  supply  to,  312,  313. 

operation  of,  311. 

source  of  supply  for,  311. 

use  of,  287. 

waste  of  water  by,  313. 

waste  valve  of,  312. 

work  done  by,  313. 
Range  boilers  for  residences,  211. 

heating  of,  328. 

material  for,  192,  211. 

size  of,  211. 
Range  water  closets,  44. 

in  public  toilet  rooms,  228. 

objections  to,  44. 
Reaming  of  ends  of  wrought-iron  pipe,  261. 
Recessed  drainage  fittings,  261. 
Refrigerator  drainage  for  flat  buildings,  205. 
Refrigerator  drip  sink,  61. 
Refrigerator  fines,  65. 

connections  into,  65. 
Refrigerator  rooms,  drainage  of,  62. 
Refrigerator  traps,  65. 
Refrigerators,  61. 

connections  for,  65. 

drip  pan  for,  61. 

errors  in  connections  of,  157. 
Regulating  cylinder  for  windmill,  311. 
Regulators  for  tanks,  211. 
Residences,  plumbing  for,  201. 

range  boilers  for,  211. 
Restaurant  sink,  55. 
Roof  connections,  91. 
Roof  flanges,  91. 
Roof,  fresh-air  inlet  through,  105. 

overflow  onto,  62. 

size  of  pipes  through,  155. 
Roof  pipes,  escape  of  gases  through,  loi. 

frost  in,  91. 

requirements  of,  91. 

support  of,  96. 

use  of  caps  and  cowls  on,  91. 
Roof  vents,  84. 


Roughing-in,  161. 
Roughing  test,  167. 

preparations  for,  168. 
Roughing,  work  included  in,  161. 
Running  of  soil  pipe,  95. 
Rust  in  vent  system,  90,  91. 
Rust  joints,  88. 


S  traps,  73,  75. 

cleanouts  for  bath,  138. 

continuous  vents  for,  81. 

for  country  plumbing,  285. 

for  lavatories,  133. 

forms  of,  76. 

use  of,  175. 
Safe  for  attic  storage  tank,  288. 
Safe  wastes,  connection  of,  62. 
Sand  for  filtering  purposes,  219. 
Sawdust  to  protect  pipes  from  freezing,  321. 
Scale,  architects',  use  of,  359. 
Scale  in  vent  system,  90,  91. 
Schools,  automatic  flushing  for,  245. 
Scouring  action  of  S-traps,  76. 
Seal  of  traps,  73,  74. 

causes  affecting,  74. 

evaporation  of,  no,  176. 
Seat  vent,  123. 

Self-cleansing  factory  sink,  247. 
Separate  drainage  system  for  each  house, 

103. 
Separate  waste  entrances  for  fixtures,  131, 

132,  i37>  138- 
Separators,  rain-water,  289. 
Septic  tank,  299. 

action  of,  299. 

action  of  bacteria  in,  299. 

construction  of,  299. 

discharge  chamber  of,  301. 

displaces  cesspools,  299. 

disposal  of  contents  of,  301. 

final  disposal  from,  302. 

light,  air,  and  warmth  of,  299. 

size  of,  299. 

use  of,  299. 

venting  of,  285. 
Service  pipes  destroyed  by  electrolysis,  265. 

frozen,  thawed  by  electricity,  331. 
Setting  of  lavatory  bowls,  24. 

marble  floor  slabs,  33. 
Settling  chamber  of  septic  tank,  299. 
Sewage  below  sewer  level,  disposal  of,  277. 

filtration  of,  through  soil,  302. 

lifting  of,  277. 


386 


INDEX 


Sewage  below  sewer  level,  pressure  neces- 
sary to  raise,  279. 

underground,  disposal  of,  302. 
Sewage  ejector,  automatic,  277,  278. 

action  of,  278. 

advantages  of,  280. 

for  large  work,  280. 

for  marine  work,  282. 

for  public  sewage,  281. 

proper  size  of,  281. 

venting  of,  279. 
Sewage  lifts,  automatic,  277,  278. 

action  of,  278. 

advantages  of,  280. 

for  large  work,  280. 

for  marine  work,  282. 

for  public  sewage,  281. 

proper  size  of,  281. 

venting  of,  279. 
Sewage  pumps,  use  of,  277. 
Sewage  siphons,  automatic,  305. 

action  of,  306. 

use  of,  305. 
Sewage  system,  surface,  rain  leaders  into, 

206. 
Sewer  gas  in  plumbing  system,  loi. 
Sewer  level,  disposal  of  sewage  below,  277. 
Sewers,  circulation  of  air  in,  102. 

cesspools  connected  to,  293. 

house  sewer  connections  into,  198. 

ventilation  of,  102. 
Sheet  lead,  weights  of,  192. 
Shellac  for  painting  pipes,  145. 
Shower  bath,  32. 

connections  for,  32. 

construction  of,  32. 

waste  from,  237. 
Shower  for  lavatory,  32. 
Sink,  bar,  connection  of,  66. 
Sink,  cast-iron,  sizes  of,  17. 
Sink,  drip,  for  refrigerator,  61. 
Sink  for  discharge  of  cellar  drainer,  112. 
Sink,  hotel  or  restaurant,  55. 
Sink,  kitchen,  17. 

connections  for,  17. 

construction  of,  17,  18. 

for  hotels,  etc.,  17. 

hot-water  supply  for,  17. 

setting  of,  17,  18. 

waste  for,  161. 
Sink  mat,  flexible  wooden,  18. 
Sink,  pantry,  25. 

connections  for,  25. 

construction  of,  25. 

setting  of,  25. 


Sink,  slop,  49. 

automatic  flushing  of,  247. 

connections  for,  49. 

flush  tank  for,  50. 
Sink,  soda  fountain,  connection  of,  66. 
Sink,  stall,  69,  241. 
Sink,  vegetable  wash,  18. 

construction  of,  18. 
Sinks,  wash,  for  factories,  242,  247. 
Siphon,  action  of,  75. 

automatic,  for  range  water  closets, 
44. 

for  automatic  urinal,  247. 

water  raised  by,  316. 
Siphonage  apphed  to  the  water  closet,  117. 

in  un vented  plumbing  systems,  229. 

of  drum  traps,  81,  83. 

of  traps,  74,  138. 

of  traps,  prevention  of,  176. 

of  unvented  traps,  149. 

of  water-closet  traps,  38. 

prevented  by  venting,  75. 

water  supply  by,  316. 
Siphonic  influences  on  traps,  39. 
Siphonic  water  supply,  286,  316. 
Siphon-jet  urinal,  257. 
Siphon-jet  water  closet,  115. 
Siphon  water  closet,  43,  115. 

for  low-down  style,  118. 
Siphons,  automatic  sewage,  305. 

action  of,  306. 

use  of,  305. 
Sitz  bath,  32. 

connections  for,  32. 
Slabs,  floor,  setting  of,  33. 
Slabs,  marble,  for  lavatories,  24. 

table  of  contents  of,  25. 
Slate,  cement  for  mending,  19. 

estimating  of,  364. 

for  urinals,  50. 
Slate  factory  sink,  247. 
Slate  urinals,  256. 

flushing  of,  256. 
Slop  hopper,  waste-preventive,  50. 
Slop  sink,  49. 

automatic  flushing  of,  247. 

connections  for,  49. 

flush  tank  for,  50. 

flushing  rim  for,  119. 

flushing  valves  for,  251. 

local  venting  of,  123,  124. 

operated  by  flush  valves,  43. 
Smoke,  materials  to  produce,  171. 
Smoke  machine,  171. 
Smoke  test,  167, 


INDEX 


387 


Smoke  test,  advantages  of,  172. 

air  pressure  for,  171. 

connections  for,  171. 
Soapstone,  cement  for  mending,  ig. 
Soda  fountain  sinks,  connection  of,  66. 
Soil  pipe,  87. 

changes  in  direction  of,  89. 

connections  for,  87. 

definition  of,  87. 

extra  heavy,  87. 

for  factories,  242. 

measuring  of,  359. 

painting  of,  145. 

running  of,  95. 

size  of,  90. 

standard,  87. 

supported  on  tiled  floors,  234. 

supporting  of,  95. 
Soil  pipe  stacks  in  high  buildings,  size  of, 

223. 
Soil  pipe  stoppers,  168. 
Soil  vents,  84. 

definition  of,  138. 
Solder,  wiping,  amount  for  different  joints, 

363-  . 

estimating  of,  362. 
Soldering  nipples,  weights  and  sizes  of,  272. 

use  of  on  Durham  system,  272. 
Special  waste  fittings,  38. 
Stable  drains,  no. 
Stable  waste  into  catch  basin,  241. 
Stables,  floor  drains  for,  241. 

plumbing  for,  69,  70,  241. 
Stacks,  ahgnment  of,  89. 

in  high  buildings,  size  of,  223. 

main,  at  end  of  house  drain,  191. 

offsets  in,  89. 

running  of,  133. 

sizes  of,  90. 

testing  of,  169. 

through  roof,  89. 
Stall  sink  for  stables,  69,  241. 
Standard  soil  pipe,  87. 
Standards  for  soil  pipe,  234. 
Standing  overflow  for  horse  trough,  70. 
Steam  coils  for  hot-water  boilers,  211,  343, 

344- 
Steam  for  automatic  sewage  lifts,  280. 

heating  of  boilers  by,  343. 
Steam-heating  systems,  drainage  from,  66. 
Steel  and  iron,  differences  between,  264. 
Steel  pipe,  life  of,  263,  264,  265. 
Stone  for  filtering  purposes,  219. 
Stoppers,  soil  pipe,  168. 
Storage  tanks,  238. 


Storage  tanks,  attic,  287. 

construction  of,  238. 

covered,  238. 

for  flushing  valves,  251,  252. 

for  rain  water,  328. 

svipply  for,  238. 

supporting  of,  238. 
Submerged  cleanouts,  82,  83,  164. 
Subsoil  drainage,  iii. 

catch  basin  for,  in. 

disposal  of,  112. 
Subsoil  drains,  construction  of,  in. 

drain  tile  for,  in. 

grading  of,  in. 

into  surface  sewer,  no. 
Suction  of  sewage  pump,  278. 
Suction  pipes,  lead  used  for,  273. 
Suction  pump,  action  of,  314. 
Sump  tank,  automatic,  280. 
Supplies,  nickel-plated,  33. 
Supply  for  double  boiler,  337. 

hot  water,  for  large  buildings^  343. 
Supply  pipe,  estimating  of,  363. 

for  cellar  drainer,  112. 

large  hot  water,  344. 

material  for,  192. 
Supply  systems,  headers  for,  214. 

street  pressure,  213. 

tank  pressure,  213. 
Supply  tanks,  238. 
Supporting  of  roof  pipes,  91,  96. 

soil  pipe,  95. 
Surface  sewage  system,  rain  leaders  info, 

206. 
Surface  sewers,  no. 
Surface  venting,  123. 
Swimming  pool,  change  of  water  in,  237. 

connections  for,  237. 

construction  of,  237. 

filtered  water  for,  238. 


T 


Tank  overflow,  62. 
Tank-pressure  system  of  supply,  213. 
Tank  regulators,  211. 
Tanks,  attic  storage,  287. 

automatic  flush,  action  of,  245. 

automatic  sump,  280. 

condensing,  use  of,  66. 

flush,  concealing  of,  234. 

hot  water,  automatic  control  of,  349. 

low-down;  43. 

open  gravity,  use  of,  220. 


388 


INDEX 


Tanks,  overhead,  use  of,  220. 

septic,  299. 

size  of,  213. 

storage,  for  flushing  valves,  251,  252. 

venting  of,  285. 
Tanks,  capacity  of,  to  find,  319. 

for  double  boiler,  337. 

for    pneumatic    water    supply,   309, 
310. 

for  storage  and  supply,  238. 

for  storing  rain  water,  328. 
Tapped  fittings,  use  of,  90. 
Tar,  pipes  coated  with,  87. 
Tees,  use  of,  on  drainage  system,  89. 

wrong  use  of,  155. 
Tell-tale,  use  of,  287. 

Tenement  houses,  drainage  of  yards,  courts, 
and  areas  of,  208. 

main  trap  used  in,  103. 

regulation  of  plumbing  in,  207. 

ventilation  of  toilet  rooms  of,  208. 
Testing  of  concealed  piping,  167. 

high  stacks,  169. 

old  work,  167. 

plumbing  system,  167. 

plumbing  system  in  sections,  169. 
Testing  plugs,  168. 

double,  169. 
Tests,  air,  167. 

advantages  of,  170. 

objections  to,  170. 

pressure  for,  170. 

final,  167. 

first,  167. 

forms  of,  167. 

peppermint,  167,  171. 

peppermint,  objections  to,  171. 

purpose  of,  167. 

roughing,  167. 

roughing,  preparations  for,  168. 

smoke,  167,  171. 

smoke,  advantages  of,  172. 

smoke,  connections  for,  171. 

water,  167. 

water,  by  whom  made,  168. 

water,  pressure  of,  169. 

water,  when  applied,  161. 
Thawing  pipes  by  electricity,  331. 
Tiling  of  bath-rooms,  139. 
Timbers,  cutting  of,  133. 
Time  card,  369,  370. 

Toilet  apartments  of  tenement  houses,  ven- 
tilation of,  208. 
Toilet  rooms,  lighting  of,  228. 

for  factories,  floors  for,  242. 


Toilet  rooms  for  factories,  lighting  of,  242. 

for  factories,  ventilation  of,  242. 

for  factories,  242. 

odors  in,  24. 

pubMc,  automatic  flushing  for,  245. 

public,  circuit  vents  for,  187. 

public,  concealed  work  in,  233. 

pubhc,  floor  drains  for,  227. 

pubUc,  floors  of,  227. 

public,  partitions  in,  208,  228. 

public,  plumbing  for,  227,  233. 

public,  urinals  for,  255. 

pubhc,  use  of  lavatories  in,  229. 

public,  use  of  local  vent  in,  246. 

public,  use  of  range  water  closets  in, 
228. 

water  closets,  underground,  disposal 
of  waste  from,  277. 

water  closets,  ventilation  of,  123,  124, 
127,  227. 
Toilet  soaps,  odors  from  use  of,  144. 
Trap,  definition  of,  73. 

for  fine  of  shower  baths,  237. 

serving  two  fixtures,  82,  131,  132. 
Traps,  adjustable  for  slop  sink,  49. 

cleanouts  for,  77. 

deep-seal,  for  rain  leaders,  207 

deep-seal,  use  of,  log. 

drum,  cleanouts  on,  164. 

drum,  connections  for,  81. 

drum,  for  bath  tub,  81,  149. 

drum,  for  country  plumbing,  285. 

drum,  for  laundry  tubs,  82. 

drum,  for  refrigerators,  61. 

drum,  obstructions  in,  82,  83. 

drum,  siphonage  of,  81,  83. 

drum,  stoppage  of,  82. 

drum,  unvented,  81. 

fixture,  cleaning  of,  145. 

for  bath  tubs,  31,  77. 

for  cellar  drain,  iii. 

for  floor  and  yard  drains,  109. 

for  refrigerators,  65. 

for  various  fixtures,  sizes  of,  77. 

formed  by  sags  in  lead  pipe,  162. 

grease,  55.  _ 

half-S,  venting  of,  175. 

house,  loi. 

house,  advantages  of,  103,  no. 

house,  cleanouts  on,  104,  105,  162, 
163. 

house,  for  tenement  houses,  103. 

house,  freezing  of,  104. 

house,  in  large  cities,  103. 

house,  object  of,  loi. 


INDEX 


389 


Traps,  house,  objections  to,  102. 

house,  outside  of  foundation,  106. 
house,  setting  of,  105. 
house,  stoppage  of,  104. 
how  set,  77. 

internal  partitions  in,  74. 
location  of  cleanouts  on,  164. 
main,  loi. 

main,  advantages  of,  103,  no. 
main,  connection  at,  196. 
main,  for  tenement  houses,  103. 
main,  in  large  cities,  103. 
main,  object  of,  10 1. 
main,  objections  to,  102. 
main,  on  country  systems,  286. 
main,  outside  of  foundation,  106. 
main,  setting  of,  105. 
main,  stoppage  of,  104. 
mechanical  seals  in,  74. 
non-siphonable,  73. 
non-siphonable,  use  of,  149. 
objections  to  venting  of,  175. 
prevention  of  siphonage  of,  176. 
rain  leader,  cleanouts  on,  163. 
requirements  of,  73. 

S,  73- 

S,  cleanout  for,  138. 

S,  for  country  plumbing,  285. 

S,  for  lavatories,  133. 

S,  siphonage  of,  138. 

S,  siphonic  influences  on,  39. 

S,  stoppage  of  vents  of,  175. 

S,  under  floors,  77. 

underground,  cleanouts  on,  163. 

unvented,  siphonage  of,  149. 

use  of,  on  rain  leaders,  205. 

use  of  S,  175. 

the  water-closet,  115. 
Trapping  of  fixtures,  errors  in,  156. 

floor  and  yard  drains,  no. 

rain  leaders,  106. 
Trap  cleanouts  submerged,  82,  83. 
Trap  seals,  causes  affecting,  74. 

definition  of,  73. 

evaporation  of,  74,  77,  no. 

evaporation  of  decreased,  by  contin- 
uous venting,  176. 

of  rain  leader  traps,  evaporation  of, 
207. 

of  water  closet,  115. 
Trap  vents,  requirements  of,  84,  184. 
Trench  work,  198. 
Trimmings  for  baths,  32. 

for  lavatories,  32. 

fixture,  estimating  of,  364. 


Trough,  horse,  70. 

Trough  urinal,  257. 

Tubs,  laundry,  18. 

Two-flat  house,  plumbing  for,  205. 

Two-floor  work,  continuous  venting  for,  179. 

T-Ys,  use  of,  89,  155. 

U 

Underground  cast-iron  pipe,  162. 

disposal  of  contents  of    septic    tank, 
302.  _ 

drain  pipe,  how  run,  198. 

grease  traps,  56. 

piping  destroyed  by  electrolysis,  265. 

plumbing  systems,  subsoil  drainage 
of,  277,  280. 

purification  of  sewage,  302. 

toilet  rooms,  disposal  of  waste  from, 
277. 

traps,  cleanouts  on,  163. 

wrought-iron  pipe,  162. 
Unvented  plumbing  systems,  siphonage  in, 

229. 
Urinals,  50. 

automatic  flushing  of,  257. 

automatically  flushed,  246,  256. 

connections  for,  50. 

connections  for  group  of,  271. 

continuous  venting  of,  256. 

floor  slabs  for,  256. 

flushing  rim,  256. 

flushing  valves  for,  251,  252,  257. 

for  public  toilet  rooms,  255. 

gutters  for,  256. 

lip,  256.  _ 

lip,  flushing  rim  for,  119. 

local  venting  of,  123,  124,  255. 

materials  for  connections  of,  273. 

on  Durham  system,  257. 

operated  by  flush  valves,  43. 

partitions  and  backs  for,  50. 

pedestal,  257. 

porcelain,  256. 

setting  of,  50. 

siphon-jet,  257. 

slate,  256. 

slate  for,  50. 

trough,  257. 

waste-preventive,  50. 


Vacuum  formed  in  cellar  drainer,  112. 
Valve  waste,  connections  for,  214. 
Valve  water  closets,  objections  to,  115. 


39© 


INDEX 


Vegetable  wash  sink,  i8. 

construction  of,  i8. 
Vent,  main  lines  of,  in  high  buildings,  223. 
Vent  not  required  for  water  closet,  138. 
Vent  through  cleanout  cover,  82. 
Vent  system,  corrosion  of  piping  of,  264. 

rust,  scale,  and  condensation  in,  90, 
91. 
Vents,  blind,  157. 

branch,  84. 

branch,  running  of,  184. 

circuit  and  loop  for  lines   of  water 
closets,  242. 

circuit,  construction  of,  187. 

circuit,  for  public  toilet  rooms,  187. 

circuit,  quarter  bends  on,  188. 

cleanouts  on,  76,  164. 

for  Durham  system,  261. 

loop,  188. 

sizes  of,  188. 

main,  84. 

main,  connection  of,  90,  184. 

main,  not  required,  138. 

main,  materials  for,  92,  184. 

mechanical  devices  for,  175. 

pitch  of,  184. 

soil  and  waste,  definitions  of,  138. 

stoppage  of,  175. 

trap,  requirements  of,  84. 

various  forms  of,  83. 
Ventilation  by  use  of  fans,  128. 

mechanical,  127. 

of  bath  room,  144. 

of  comfort  stations,  127. 

of  factory  toilet  rooms,  242. 

of  pubhc  toilet  rooms,  127,  227. 

of  sewers,  102. 

of     tenement-house     toilet     rooms, 
208. 

of  toilet  rooms,  123. 

requirements  for,  124. 
Venting,  73. 

circuit,  187. 

circuit,  in  public  toilet  rooms,  234. 

continuous,  175. 

continuous,  advantages  of,  175,  180. 

continuous,  economy  of,  180,  183. 

continuous,    for    apartment    houses, 
179. 

continuous,   for  groups   of   fixtures, 
176. 

continuous,  for  lavatories,  176. 

continuous,  for  Hne  of  fixtures,  271. 

continuous,     for    lines  of  lavatories, 

233- 


Venting,  continuous,  for  lines  of    urinals, 

256. 
continuous,  for  S  trap,  81,  83. 
continuous,  for  two-floor  work,  179. 
continuous,  for  two  lines  of  fixtures, 

183. 
continuous,  for  water  closets,  187. 
continuous,    from     double    fittings, 

223- 

continuous,  objections  to,  175. 

of  cesspools,  285,  294. 

of  condensing  tank,  66. 

of   fixtures  at  distance    from  main 
vent,  184. 

fixtures  at  distance  from  stack,  137. 

of  half  S  trap,  175. 

of  lines  of   water  closets,  187,  188, 
242. 

of  S  traps,  76. 

of  septic  tanks,  285. 

of  sewage  ejectors,  279. 

of  slop  sink,  49. 

of  water  closets,  38,  223. 

of  water  closet  from  crockery,  155. 

of  water-closet  trap,  143. 

poor  practices  in,  156. 

practical  requirements  of,  83,  184. 

prevents  siphonage,  75. 
Vertical  pipes,  running  of,  133. 

support  of,  96. 
Vertical  stacks,  running  of,  89. 
Vises  for  brass  pipe,  use  of,  202. 
Vitreous    chinaware     for     water     closets, 

T18. 
Vitrified  earthen  pipe  for  drains,  no. 


W 


Wash-down  water  closet,  115,  116. 
Wash-down  siphon  water  closet,  117. 
Washout  water  closet,  115,  116,  117. 
Wash  sinks  for  factories,  242. 
Wash  trays,  18. 

connections  for,  19. 

construction  of,  18. 

drum  trap  for,  19,  82. 

in  cellars,  205. 
Waste  and  vent  fittings,  special,  201. 
Waste  connections,  cleaning  of,  145. 

separate  entrance  of,  into  stack,  131, 

132,  137,  138- 
Waste  fittings,  special,  143. 


INDEX 


391 


Waste  pipe,  definition  of,  87. 

main,  measuring  of,  359. 

size  of,  90. 
Waste-preventive  slop  hopper,  50. 

urinal,  50. 

valve  of  hydraulic  ram,  operation  of, 


Waste 

312. 

Waste 

Water, 


vents,  84,  138. 
natural  purification  of,  290. 
plumbing  system  filled  with,  169. 
wasted  by  the  hydrauhc  ram,  313. 
Water  closets,  115. 

automatic  flush  for,  245. 

circuit  and  loop  vents  for,  242. 

connections  for,  37. 

continuous  venting  of,  187. 

exposed  surface  in,  115. 

floor  connections  for,  37,  119. 

floor  connections  for  Durham  system, 

271,  272. 
crazing  of,  119. 
flush  pipe  to,  37. 
flush  tank  for,  37. 
flush  valve  for,  37,  43. 
flushing  of,  115. 
flushing  rim  for,  119. 
flushing  valves  for,  251. 
for  public  toilet  rooms,  234. 
frost-proof,  70. 
in  factories,  number  of,  207. 
in  public  toilet  rooms,  flush  tanks 

for,  234. 
in  tenement  houses,  etc.,  number  of, 

207. 
local  vent  a  part  of,  234. 
local  venting  of,  123. 
location  of,  119. 
low-down,  43. 
material  for,  118. 
modern,  advantages  of,  115. 
no  mechanical  devices  in,  115. 
offset,  use  of,  118. 
pan,  valve,  and  plunger,  115. 
principal  forms  of,  115. 
range,  44. 

requirements  of,  115. 
siphon,  115,  118. 
siphonage  apphed  to,  117. 
siphonage  of,  38. 
siphon-jet,  115. 
trap  seal  of,  115. 
vented  from  crockery,  38,  155. 
vented  from  lead  bend,  38. 
vented  from  T-Y  fitting,  38. 
ventilation  of,  119. 


Water  closets,  venting  of,  38,  143,  223. 

venting  of  lines  of,  187,  188,  242. 

venting  of,  unnecessary,  138. 

wash-down,  115. 

wash-down  siphon,  117. 

washout,  115,  116. 

waste  from,  37. 

water  jet  apphed  to,  117. 

when  unnecessary  to  vent,  205. 
Water  jacket  for  grease  trap,  56. 
Water  jet  applied  to  water  closet,  117. 
Water  lifts,  drainage  from,  66. 
Water    mains,    destroyed    by  electrolysis, 
265. 

frozen,  thawed  by  electricity,  331. 
Water  pipe,  estimating  of,  363. 
Water  pressures,  table  of,  169. 
Water  supply  by  siphonage,  286,  316. 

for  attic  storage  tanks,  287. 

for  country  systems,  286,  325. 

for  double  boilers,  337. 

gravity,  286. 

pipes,  material  for,  192. 

pneumatic,  309. 
Water  test,  167. 

by  whom  made,  168. 

pressure  of,  169. 

when  apphed,  161. 
Weight    of    piping    of    plumbing   system, 

96. 
Wells,  driven,  315,  316. 

for  windmill  pumping,  319. 

forms  of,  290. 

location  of,  289. 
Wheel  pits,  drainage  of,  112. 
Windmills,  regulating  cylinder  for,  311. 

pumping  by,  318'. 

wells  for,  319. 
Windmill  pumps,  318. 
Windows,  distance  of  fresh-air  inlet  from, 

104. 
Wiping  solder,  amount  for  dift'erent  joints, 

363-. 
estimating  of,  362. 
Wire  baskets  for  roof  pipes,  91. 
Wooden  laundry  tubs,  19. 
sinks,  19. 
sink  mat,  18. 
Wrenches  for  brass  pipe,  use  of,  202. 
Wrought-iron  and  brass  pipe  connections, 

88. 
Wrought-iron  and  cast-iron   pipe   connec- 
tions, 88. 
Wrought-iron   drainage   pipe,   weights    of, 
261. 


392  INDEX 

Wrought-iron  pipes,  advantage  of,  97.  Y 

connection  of    into    cast-iron  pipe, 

262.  Y  branch,  use  of,  89,  155. 

cutting  and  reaming  of,  261.  Yard  drains,  109. 

for  refrigerator  work,  65.  into  surface  sewers,  11 

life  of,  263,  264,  265.  size  of,  109. 

underground,  162.  trapping  of,  109,  no. 

use  of,  92.  Yards,  drainage  of,  109,  208. 


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planations, because  of  the  greater  complexity  of  the  machinery  illustrated  and  described. 
S3. 00. 

HISCOX.     Modern  Steam  Engineering  in  Theory  and  Practice 

This  book  has  been  specially  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  modern  steam  engineer,  the 
technical  students,  and  all  who  desire  the  latest  and  most  reliable  information  on  steam 
and  steam  boilers,  the  machinery  of  power,  the  steam  turbine,  electric  power  and  lighting 
plants,  etc.     450  octavo  pages,  400  detailed  engravings.     $3.00. 

HORNER.     Modern  Milling  Machines:   Their  Design,  Construction  and 
Operation 

This  work  of  304  pages  is  fully  illustrated  and  describes  and  illustrates  the  Milling 
Machine  from  its  early  conception  to  the  present  time.     $4.00. 

HORNER.     Practical  Metal  Turning 

A  work  covering  the  modern  practice  of  machining  metal  parts  in  the  lathe.  Fully- 
illustrated.     $3.50. 

HORNER.     Tools  for  Machinists  and  Wood  Workers,  Including  Instru- 
ments of  Measurment 

A  practical  work  of  340  pages  fully  illustrated,  giving  a  general  description  and  classi- 
fication of  tools  for  machinists  and  woodworkers.     $3.50. 

Inventor's  Manual ;    How  to  Make  a  Patent  Pay 

This  is  a  book  designed  as  a  guide  to  inventors  in  perfecting  their  inventions,  taking 
out  their  patents  and  disposing  of  them.      119  pages.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

KRAUSS.     Linear  Perspective  Self-Taught 

The  underlying  principle  by  which  objects  may  be  correctly  represented  in  perspec- 
tive is  clearly  set  forth  in  this  book;  everything  relating  to  the  subject  is  shown  in  suitable 
diagrams,  accompanied  by  full  explanations  in  the  text.     Price  $2.50. 

LE  VAN.     Safety  Valves;    Their  History,   Invention,  and  Calculation 

Illustrated  by  69  engravings.      151  pages.     $1.50. 

LEW^ES  AND   BRAME.     Laboratory  Note  Book 

A  practical  treatise  prepared  for  the  Chemical  Student.    170  pages.     Cloth,  $1.00. 
MATHOT.     Modern  Gas  Engines  and  Producer  Gas  Plants 

A  practical  treatise  of  320  pages,  fully  illustrated  by  175  detailed  illustrations,  setting 
forth  the  principles  of  gas  engines  and  producer  design,  the  selection  and  installation  of 
an  engine,  conditions  of  perfect  operation,  producer-gas  engines  and  their  possibilities, 
the  care  of  gas  engines  and  producer-gas  plants,  with  a  chapter  on  volatile  hydrocarbon 
and  oil  engines.    S2.50. 

MEINHARDT.     Practical  Lettering  and  Spacing 

Shows  a  rapid  and  accurate  method  of  becoming  a  good  letterer  with  a  little  practice. 
Oblong.     Paper  cover.      60  cents. 

PARSELL  &  WEED.     Gas  Engine  Construction 

A  practical  treatise  describing  the  theory  and  principles  of  the  action  of  gas  engines 
of  various  types,  and  the  design  and  construction  of  a  half -horse-power  gas  engine,  with 
illustrations  of  the  work  in  actual  progress,  together  with  dimensioned  working  drawings 
giving  clearly  the  sizes  of  the  various  details.  Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Twen- 
ty-five chapters.      Large  8vo.     Handsomely  illustrated  and  bound.     300  pages.     $2.50. 

PERRIGO.     Modern   Machine  Shop  Construction,  Equipment  and  Man- 
agement 

The  only  work  published  that  describes  the  Modern  Machine  Shop  or  Manufacturing 
Plant  from  the  time  the  grass  is  growing  on  the  site  intended  tor  it  until  the  finished  prod- 
uct is  shipped.  By  a  careful  study  of  its  chapters  the  practical  man  may  economically 
biiild,  efficiently  equip,  and  successfully  manage  the  modern  machine  shop  or  manufact- 
uring establishmput.  Just  the  book  needed  by  those  contemplating  the  erection  of 
modern  sho-o  build' ngs,  the  rebuilding  and  reorganization  of  old  ones,  or  the  introduction 
of  Modern  Shop  Methods,  Time  and  Cost  Systems.  It  is  a  book  written  and  illustrated 
oy  a  practical  shop  man  for  practical  shop  men  who  are  too  busy  to  read  theories  and  want 
facts.  It  is  the  most  complete  all-around  book  of  its  kind  ever  published.  400  large 
quarto  pages,  225  original  and  specially-made  illustrations.     $5.00. 


Publications  of  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

PERRIGO.      Modern  American  Lathe  Practice 

A  new  book  describing  and  illustrating  the  very  latest  practice  in  lathe  and  boring 
mill  operations,  as  well  as  the  construction  of  and  latest  developments  in  the  manufact- 
ure ot  these  important  classes  of  machine  tools.     300  pages,  fully  illustrated.     S2.50. 

REAGAN,  JR.     Electrical    Engineers'    and   Students'  Chart  and    Hand- 
Book  of  the  Brush  Arc  Light  System 

Illustrated.     Bound  in  cloth,  with  celluloid  chart  in  pocket.      50  cents. 

SAUNIER.     Watchmaker's  Hand-Book 

*.na=^P^*ii'^,"<ft'!.'i.'*\^'^'*'°"-  Contains  498  pages  and  is  a  workshop  companion  for  those 
engaged  m  ^watchmaking  ana  aUied  mechanical  arts.      250  engravings  and  14  plates.   $3.00. 

SLOANE.     Electricity  Simplified 

to  .W  ww'^^t^i  "Electricity  Simplified"  is  to  make  the  subject  as  plain  as  possible  and 
edition     iS  00        "'°'^^™  conception  of  electricity  is.      158  pages.     Illustrated.    Twelfth 

SLOANE.     How  to  Become  a  Successful  Electrician 

It  is  the  ambition  of  thousands  of  young  and  old  to  become  electrical  engineers.  Not 
fm°f%  ''  prepared  to  spend  several  thousand  dollars  upon  a  college  coursi,  even  if  the 
en^t^PPr  w^'h^Tfl^'"^''''''*^^  """"^  ''};  ^^?^^  disposal.  It  is  possible  to  become  an  electrical 
ces^Xf  FWt^n"  -'"  >t'="^?U  ^""^  ,*^''  '^°'"}^  ^^  designed  to  tell  "How  to  Become  a  Suc- 
pH;h^J;  ^1®'=„*""^"  without  the  outlay  usually  spent  in  acquiring  the  profession.  Twelfth 
edition.      1S9  pages.     Illustrated.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     Arithmetic  of  Electricity 

=.11  ^f\£"''''^*'''''i^  treatise  on  electrical  calculations  of  all  kinds,  reduced  to  a  series  of  rules, 
onP  nr^nl™''  +•  1"^'  tf'^  ^volving  only  ordinary  arithmetic;  each  rule  illustrated  by 
Tl?n=?..l^H  P^'^'o'^^^'^al  problems,  with  detailed  solution  of  each  one.  Nineteenth  edition. 
Illustrated.      138  pages.     Cloth,  $1.00. 

SLOANE.     Electrician's  Handy  Book 

hMr^^fn^Z'^T/f^  7u''^  covering  the  subject  of  practical  electricity  in  all  its  branches, 
al?  br.nch^^    nf  r  ^ery-day  working  electrician.     The  latest  and  best  authority  on 

^•th  tft^P  .nH  ^A  applied  electricity.  Pocketbook  size.  Handsomely  bound  in  leather, 
with  title  and  edges  m  gold.     800  pages.      500  illustrations.     Price,  $3.50. 

SLOANE.     Electric  Toy  Making,  Dynamo  Building,  and  Electric  Motor 
Construction 

This  work  treats  of  the  making  at  home  of  electrical  toys,  electrical  apparatus  motors, 
«nr^H°';>.^''^  mstruments  m  general,  and  is  designed  to  bring  within  the'^reach  of  young 
rui-\Ct^ra"^eT'^i'4*o"^^^^^^^^^^^  ^^^^"-^  ^PP"--^"     Eighteenth  edition" 

SLOANE.  Rubber  Hand  Stamps  and  the  Manipulation  of  India  Rubber 
SecondS'n"'  aot^  Ti.'oo'  --"^^^^-^  °'  ^^  ^inds  of  rubber  articles.  146  pages. 
SLOANE.     Liquid  Air  and  the  Liquefaction  of  Gases 

Containing  the  full  theory  of  the  subject  and  giving  the  entire  history  of  liquefaction 
of  gases  from  the  ear  lest  times  to  the  present.  It  shows  how  liquid  air,  like  water  S 
l^i^t,  ^wv,?'^'."^  Tl^'  ^"'^  '^  ^^"'^^"'^  ^"  ?P^"  b^^l^^ts.  It  tells  what  may  be  Txpecled 
terLm."    Seco"nl'"edron.-     &.''''''  ^^^  "^^"^  iH-trations.     Handsom^ely  bou^n^lS 

SLOANE.     Standard  Electrical  Dictionary 

termf  an'd^rfimses^'^^An^Pnt-^I?'^''''''  '"T.^^^'^'^S  definitions  of  about  5,000  distinct  words, 
C^^^^^^    ?r^^  entirely  new  edition,  brought  up  to  date  and  greatly  enlarged 

Glotti      8^0      $Too.''°"'"^"'^  ^^^^^-     ^^^    illustrations.     Handsomely   bound  in 

STARBUCK.     Modern  Plumbing  Illustrated 

\T^„A  cpniPrehensive  and  up-to-date  work  illustrating  and  describing  the  Drainage  and 
Ventilation  of  dwellings  apartments,  and  public  buildings,  etc.  The  very  latest  and  nfost 
uS?eJ'stT''r°'^'  '"^  ^^^  ^^^'^'^  °^  '^^^*^^y  installatfon  are  given  Adopted  by  the 
and  hv  t^  Government  m  its  sanitary  work  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines, 
book  fo.  P^in'^iPal  boards  of  health  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  standard 
boarrli^f  ""f  ^*^7.  plumbers,  architects,  builders,  plumbing  inspectors,  boards  of  health, 
and  W<=  =,  plumbing  examiners,  and  for  the  property  owner,  as  well  as  for  the  workman 
and  his  apprentice.      300  pages.      50  full-page  illustrations.     I4.00. 

USHER.     The  Modern  Machinist 

„„,A  P'"^'^!,^'=fi  treatise  embracing  the  most  approved  methods  of  modern  machine-shop 
tlf^r^l  A  V  ^'^  applications  of  recent  improved  appliances,  tools,  and  dewdces  for  facili- 
book  froi^^n^ti''?'  """"^  ^^P^^^.t^g  the  construction  of  machines  and  their  parts.  A  new 
book  from  cover  to  cover.     Fifth  edition.     257  engravings.     322  pages.     Cloth,  $2.50. 


Publications  of  The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

VAN  DERVOORT.     Modern  Machine  Shop  Tools ;  Their  Construction, 

Operation,  and  Manipulation,  Including  Both  Hand  and  Machine  Tools 

An  entirely  new  and  fully  illustrated  work  of  555  pages  and  673  illustrations,  describ- 
ing in  every  detail  the  construction,  operation,  and  manipulation  of  both  Hand  and  Machine 
Tools;  being  a  work  of  practical  instruction  in  all  classes  of  machine-shop  practice.  In- 
cluding chapters  on  filing,  fitting,  and  scraping  surfaces;  on  drills,  reamers,  taps,  and  dies; 
the  lathe  and  its  tools;  planers,  shapers,  and  their  tools;  milling  machines  and  cutters; 
gear  cutters  and  gear  cutting;  drilling  machines  and  drill  work;  grinding  machines  and 
their  work;  hardening  and  tempering;  gearing,  belting,  and  transmission  machinery;  useful 
data  and  tables.     Fourth  edition.     S4-oo. 

WALLIS- TAYLOR.     Pocket  Book  of  Refrigeration  and  Ice  Making     - 

This  is  one  of  the  latest  and  most  comprehensive  reference  books  published  on  the  sub- 
ject of  refrigeration  and  cold  storage.  It  explains  the  properties  and  refrigerating  effect 
of  the  different  fluids  in  use,  the  management  of  refrigerating  machinery  and  the  construc- 
tion and  insulation  of  cold  rooms,  with  their  required  pipe  surface  for  different  degrees  of 
cold;  freezing  mixtures  and  non-freezing  brines,  temperatures  of  cold  rooms  for  all  kinds 
of  provisions;  cold-storage  charges  for  all  classes  of  goods,  ice-making  and  storage  of  ice, 
data  and  memoranda  for  constant  reference  by  refrigerating  engineers,  with  nearly  one 
hundred  tables  containing  valuable  references  to  every  fact  and  condition  required  in  the 
instalment  and  operation  of  a  refrigerating  plant.     $1.50. 

WOOD.     Walschaert  Locomotive  Valve  Gear 

The  only  work  issued  treating  of  this  subject  of  valve  motion.  150  pages,  illustrated. 
Cloth  Si. 50. 

WOODWORTH.     American  Tool  Making    and    Interchangeable  Manu- 
facturing 

A  practical  treatise  of  560  pages,  containing  600  illustrations  on  the  designing,  con- 
structing, use,  and  installation  of  tools,  jigs,  fixtures,  devices,  special  appliances,  sheet-metal 
working  processes,  automatic  mechanisms,  and  labor-saving  contrivances;  together  with 
their  use  in  the  lathe,  milling  machine,  turret  lathe,  screw  machine,  boring  mill,  power 
press,  drill,  subpress,  drop  hammer,  etc.,  for  the  working  of  metals,  the  production  of  in- 
terchangeable machine  parts,  and  the  manufacture  of  repetition  articles  of  metal.     $4.00 

WOODWORTH.     Dies,  Their    Construction    and    Use    for    the    Modem 

Working  of  Sheet  Metals 

A  complete  treatise  of  384  pages  and  505  illustrations  upon  the  designing,  constructing, 
and  use  of  tools,  fixtures,  and  devices,  together  with  the  manner  in  which  they  should  be 
used  in  the  power  press,  for  the  cheap  and  rapid  production  of  the  great  variety  of  sheet- 
metal  articles  now  in  use.  It  is  designed  as  a  guide  to  the  production  of  sheet-metal  parts 
at  the  minimum  of  cost  with  the  maximum  of  output.  The  hardening  and  tempering  of 
Press  tools  and  the  classes  of  work  which  may  be  produced  to  the  best  advantage  by  the 
use  of  dies  in  the  Power  press  are  fully  treated. 

The  engravings  show  dies,  press  fixtures,  and  sheet-metal  working  devices,  from  the 
simplest  to  the  most  intricate,  and  the  descriptions  are  so  clear  and  practical  that  all  metal- 
working  mechanics  will  be  able  to  understand  how  to  design,  construct  and  use  them.  $3.00. 

WOODWORTH.     Hardening,    Tempering,    Annealing,   and    Forging   of 

Steel 

A  new  book  containing  special  directions  for  tlie  successful  hardening  and  tempering 
of  all  steel  tools.  Milling  cutters,  taps,  thread  dies,  reamers,  both  solid  and  shell,  hollow 
mills,  punches  and  dies,  and  all  kinds  of  sheet-metal  working  tools,  shear  blades,  saws, 
fine  cutlery  and  metal-cutting  tools  of  all  descriptions,  as  well  as  for  all  implements  of  steel, 
both  large  and  small,  the  simplest  and  most  satisfactory  hardening  and  tempering  processes 
are  presented.  The  uses  to  which  the  leading  brands  of  steel  may  be  adapted  are  con- 
cisely presented,  and  their  treatment  for  working  under  different  conditions  explained, 
as  are  also  the  special  methods  for  the  hardening  and  tempering  of  special  brands.  320 
pages.      250  illustrations.     S2.50. 

WOODW^ORTH.     Punches,  Dies  and  Tools  for  Manufacturing  in  Presses 

A  work  of  500  pages,  and  illustrfitcd  by  nearly  700  engravings,  being  an  encyclopaedia 
of  die-making,  punch-making,  die-sinking,  sheet-metal  working,  and  rnaking  of  special  tools, 
subpresses,  devices  and  mechanical  combinations  for  punching,  cutting,  bending,  forming, 
piercing,  drawing,  compressing,  and  assembling  sheet-metal  parts  and  also  articles  of  other 
materials  in  machine  tools.     S4.00. 

W^RIGHT.     Electric  Furnaces  and  Their  Industrial  Application 

This  is  a  book  which  will  prove  of  interest  to  many  classes  of  people ;  the  manufacturer 
who  desires  to  know  what  product  can  be  manufactured  successfully  in  the  electric  furnace, 
the  chemist  who  wishes  to  post  himself  on  electro-chemistry,  and  the  student  of  science 
who  merely  looks  into  the  subject  from  curiosity.  The  book  is  not  so  scientific  as  to  be  of 
use  only  to  the  technologist,  nor  so  unscientific  as  to  suit  only  the  tyro  in  electro-chemistry ; 
it  is  a  practical  treatise  of  what  has  been  done,  and  of  what  is  being  done,  both  experi- 
mentally and  commercially,  with  the  electric  furnace.     288  pages.     $3.00. 


Date  Due 

M6R20* 

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,S/4Z 

Mc    - 

1^ 

/        77 

1» 

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Library  Bureau 

Cat.  no.  1137 

wmiii 


y7/V^/22^$^ 


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BOSTON  COLLEGE  LIBRARY 

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